Afrocentrism is a movement in the humanities to focalize – rather than view as an object, responder, or colonized subject – the African continent. While this explicitly anti-racist approach was pioneered by Drusilla Dunjee Houston in her 1926 book Wonderful Ethiopians of the Ancient Cushite Empire, and was carried on by scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop, its implications for ancient studies have become most apparent since Martin Bernal published his extremely influential and controversial multi-volume book Black Athena in the 1980s. In Classics and Ancient Studies, Afrocentrism has primarily been utilized as a lens for exploring Egypt’s relationship to Nubian and Sub-Saharan African cultures. The following sources explore methods and case studies of Afrocentrism that examine not only Egypt, but also Nubia, Ethiopia, and Pan Africanism.

Bernal, Martin. Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization. Rutgers University Press, 1987.

Presented in three equally monumental volumes, the first published in 1987, Bernal’s Black Athena is perhaps the most controversial work in the modern discipline of Classics. Bernal, the grandson of one of the twentieth century’s most famous Egyptologists, was a scholar of ancient China by training. As a result of studying Semitic languages and cultures, Bernal found new interest in what he saw to be the Afroasiatic roots of Greek civilization. In essence, Bernal asserts that cultural, linguistic, and religious similarities demonstrate that Greek civilization took its lineage – as Herodotus and other ancient authors assert – from Egyptian civilization, making Classical civilization ultimately of African heritage. Although the evidence he mobilizes has been frequently contested, Black Athena is important in that it explores the various ways in which Classics as a discipline has been invested in closely guarding the purity of its European roots. Bernal’s text-- which won the American Book Award-- generated widespread debate in the field of Classics, but its reception in Black studies and other areas has been largely positive and productive (ALR, 2020).

Further reading on Black Athena and its tumultuous reception can be found in Denise McCoskey’s article in Eidolon, “Black Athena, White Power.” See also Mary Lefkowitz’s hearty rebuke of Bernal in her book, Not Out Of Africa: How "Afrocentrism" Became An Excuse To Teach Myth As History, to which Bernal responded in his 1987 work, Black Athena Writes Back.

Cheikh Anta Diop. The African Origin of Civilization: Myth Or Reality. Lawrence Hill Books, 1974.

Cheikh Anta Diop, born in Francophone Senegal, wrote numerous histories that offered a cohesive account of Africa’s ancient past. His most frequent focus was on Ancient Egypt. Diop believed that racial-ethnic terminology such as “Mediterranean,” “Middle-Eastern,” and even “Caucasian” served to dissociate Egypt from its African identity and tradition. Importantly, Diop wanted the term “black,” in academic literature and common vernacular, to have as broad a meaning as the term “white,” leading him to write numerous histories of Egypt that focused on the Blackness of the population. Like Bernal, Diop is a controversial figure in the academy. However, his view that Egypt should be viewed as a thoroughly African civilization, and many of his insights and observations, are important (ALR, 2020).

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Keita, Maghan, “Deconstructing the Classical Age: Africa and the Unity of the Mediterranean World." Journal of Negro History 79 (2), 1994.

In a rebuttal to arguments that Africa was peripheral to a fundamentally European Classical culture, Maghan Keita highlights the importance of Aethiopians for Homer, North Africans for Herodotus, and Carthage for Romans. Foundational to her argument that Africa played a vital role in the self-conception of ancient Greeks and Romans are mythological lineages. The Greek hero Perseus, for example, was a descendant of Danaus, the ancient king of Libya, whose brother Aigyptos ruled Egypt. Further, a crucial element in Perseus’s heroic narrative was his rescue of the beautiful maiden Andromeda, the daughter of the king and queen of Aethiopia. According to Herodotus, the Greek strongman Hercules had been born from Egyptian parents and performed many of his feats in northern Africa. These narratives and others like them demonstrate the integral presence of Africa in the heroic self-conception of ancient Greeks. Both within historical and mythological milieus, Keita provides plentiful evidence that "the African, far from being separated from Classical civilization, was, in fact, an intrinsic and integral part of it" (TNK, 2023).

Malamud, Margaret, 'Black Minerva: Antiquity in Antebellum African American History', in Daniel Orrells, Gurminder K. Bhambra, and Tessa Roynon (eds), African Athena: New Agendas, Classical Presences, 70–89, (Oxford, 2011; online edn, Oxford Academic, 19 Jan. 2012).

In the fourth chapter of African Athena: New Agendas, Margaret Malamud explores the promotion by abolitionists of African and European heritage of a racial linkage between African Americans and pharaonic Egyptians. Through embracing an ancestral tie to one of the world’s most esteemed cultures and claiming a shared classical heritage, Black intellectuals sought to defend their assertion of racial equality. As modern descendants of a civilization that predated Greece and, indeed, civilized it, Black people not only fought against the myth of Social Darwinism but for the first time they inserted their African identities into a historical narrative. Referencing descriptions embedded in classical sources—primarily Book II of Herodotus’ Histories—these original Afrocentrists pointed to the racial similarities between modern black people and the Egyptians, Ethiopians, Carthaginians, and Colchians. By racially linking African Americans to these civilizations and then praising their military, intellectual, and cultural dominance over the classical world, they argued that black people were neither intrinsically racially inferior to white people nor unable to be “re-civilized.” White supremacist scientists, not surprisingly, stridently sought to disprove any characterization of Egyptians as black. While Malamud highlights the empowering nature of this embrace of Egyptian heritage, she ends by noting that it would not be until the Harlem Renaissance that black intellectuals took pride in the Africa of their day (TNK, 2023).

Snowden, Frank. Blacks in Antiquity. Harvard University Press, 1970.

In his far-reaching project, Frank Snowden, renowned professor of Classics at Howard University, presents a history of Blackness in the ancient world through a transdisciplinary examination of “Ethiopians.” Ethiopian, as Snowden demonstrates, became in the Greco-Roman world a catchall term for Black-skinned individuals, and particularly those from regions south of Egypt's first cataract. Obvious divisions existed among those in this racial category, and Snowden demonstrates the rich and varied nature of the surviving evidence. Using archeological, historical, and literary sources from both Greek and Roman civilizations, Snowden foregrounds and illuminates the heterogeneous experiences of Africans in contexts of culture contact. In doing so, he problematizes the notion that modern biases can be easily transposed upon the peoples of the ancient world. This is an excellent text for those seeking visual and material sources regarding race in antiquity (ALR, 2020).

Snowden, Frank. Before Color Prejudice: The Ancient View of Blacks. Harvard University Press, 1983.

A decade after Blacks in Antiquity, Snowden wrote Before Color Prejudice. Snowden’s essential supposition in the text-- that not only was there no color prejudice against Black Africans in antiquity but that the group was by and large highly favored and respected-- is a complicated view. Snowden argues that while "Ethiopians" (mostly Nubians and sub-Saharan Africans) encountered in the classical world as slaves suffered from the stigma common to all slaves, rich Ethiopians were respected and their poorer counterparts were not discriminated against on the basis of their skin color. Thus, Snowden offers an image of race in the ancient world that rewrites the assumptions of post-colonial logics. Race and racial projects are largely about power; thus, the fact that-- unlike Egypt-- "Ethiopia" remained unconquered meant, in Snowden's view, that its people could be known for other traits such as piety and righteousness. It’s important to note that Before Color Prejudice was met with skepticism by some Black scholars in other departments, famously Orlando Patterson, whose 1982 text Slavery as Social Death served as antithesis to Snowden’s. To some extent such differences in opinion rest on whether one privileges literary satire, artistic caricature, and evidence for Black slaves or whether one focalizes instead the plentiful evidence for flattering depictions of free Ethiopians in art and text (ALR, 2020).

When it comes to approaching race in the ancient world, the largest barrier is evidence, the qualifications for which are ever-shifting and often impossible to meet. Insofar as ethnic and racial identities often overlap, the work of archaeologists in exploring the material artifacts of antiquity can provide an important window into past constructions of identity. This is particularly true with reference to non-elites and to women. Thus, archaeology often serves as an irreplaceable counterbalance to the biases inherent in ancient written evidence and artistic production. The following sources not only present findings from excavations but include theoretical frames. Some, however, focus less on evidence than they do on ethics and argue for re-envisioning the discipline.

Angelis, Franco de. “New Data and Old Narratives: Migrants and the Conjoining of Cultures and Economies of Pre-Roman Western Mediterranean,” in Homo Migrans. Modeling Mobility and Migration in Human History, ed. M.J. Daniels SUNY. 2022.

In situations of culture contact, encounters between distinct ethnic or “racial” groups have often historically been framed as having occurred between “backwards” indigenous peoples and more “advanced” immigrants. Franco de Angelis set out to investigate the veracity of such an entrenched colonialist narrative with respect to the pre-Roman western Mediterranean from the ninth to the third centuries B.C.E. He juxtaposes this historical paradigm, which views the region as primitive until the influx of the supposedly superior Greeks and Phoenicians, with an emergent postcolonial narrative that foregrounds local agency and achievement. De Angelis points out that these polarized frameworks have largely resulted from contrasting the civilizing narratives found in classical texts with archaeological evidence. His own intervention is to test new metallurgical and economic data against a model designed to assess backwardness. In the end, de Angelis concludes that the two paradigms are both problematic, as is a stark dichotomy between “local” and “foreign.” Within a couple of generations, he points out, such foreigners had themselves become local. (SC, 2024)

Bonnet, Corrine. “On Gods and Earth: The Tophet and the Construction of a New identity in Punic Carthage,” In Cultural Identity in the Ancient Mediterranean, ed. Erich Gruen, Getty Publications, 373–387, 2011.

Corrine Bonnet looks at archaeological evidence of ritual tophet structures in Punic Carthage, which are usually tied to an etic idea of Punic traditions of human sacrifice. As little written material from the colony survives, it is impossible to construct a purely emic understanding of the significance of the tophet and practices of human sacrifice based on written records. The chapter examines the unique position of Carthage as a colonial settlement that interacted with the indigenous population of North Africa and as a diaspora community with close ties to Phoenician culture and identity. It places its material culture in dialogue with the ideas of Punic-Carthaginian ethnicity as viewed from an etic Greek and/or Roman perspective. Punic-Carthaginian ethnicity and identity could be expressed, Bonnet argues, by the presence and ritual use of tophet structures in and outside of Punic Carthage. (LC, 2021)

Buzon, Michele. “Nubian identity in the Bronze Age: Patterns of Cultural and Biological Variation.” Bioarchaeology of the Near East 5: 19–40, 2011

Michele Buzon wanted to understand the differences between two Nubian groups—the C-group and Kermans—using both bioarchaeology and material culture. In terms of bioarchaeology, Buzon took twelve different cranial measurements from 282 C-group remains and 291 Kerma remains. These results were analyzed using T-tests alongside a method called PCA which had mixed results. Although there was no significant difference in the shape of the cranium between the groups, there were differences in cranium size. Buzon suggests that the C-group’s crania may have been smaller due to environmental stressors, as the C-group inhabited a much more arid climate than the Kermans. Buzon notes that despite the relatively few observable biological variations, the pottery and burial practices of the groups were quite divergent. C-group pottery includes red-burnished ceramic wares that had black incisions as well as blackened mouths or tops. Kerman pottery did not have those distinctive designs. In terms of mortuary tradition, there are similarities in the position of the bodies; that said, they are overshadowed by differences. These include the fact that Kerman burials included more of a superstructure and ornamentation, and military items constituted part of the burial assemblage. By contrast, C-group burials were simple and relatively egalitarian, making it difficult to tell the graves of royals from the rest. Because of these important cultural differences in this era, Buzon concludes that the two groups made an active effort to emphasize the ethnic and societal features that were important to them. (KM, 2023)

Carr, Gillian. “Creolisation, Pidginisation and the Interpretation of Unique Artefacts in Early Roman Britain.” Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal 0: 113–125, 2002.

As imperial Rome spread its dominion, it is often considered to have been completing the civilizing process of ‘Romanization.’ However, as Carr argues in this text, this is an outdated model. Romanization is really just a specified form of acculturation, which is a term that has been used historically as a unidirectional process of a dominant society implanting its cultural norms onto a subjugated society. Modern scholarship would argue that we should instead be considering multidirectional cultural exchange when we look at boundaries and interactions between ancient societies. Here, Carr employs the linguistic concepts of creolization and pidginization to analyze the material culture of early Roman Britain. So too, she asks if we can find people creating ‘pidgin’ artifacts in the wake of foreign infiltration and interactions. Carr argues that we cannot understand the Romans and the Britains to be two opposing, monolithic groups, because the archaeological record includes items that blend both societies. Carr demonstrates in particular how creolization is important because it allows “the non-elite native voice to be heard within the complex mix of hybrid Roman and non-Roman identities and counter-cultures which made up Roman Britain.” Carr’s approach in this work – using analytical tools usually applied exclusively to language formation in colonial settings – is an innovative alternative to outdated theories regarding colonizer-colonized relationships. (HC, 2021)

Finkelstein, I. " Ethnicity and Origin of the Iron I Settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the Real Israel Stand Up?" The Biblical Archaeologist 59 (4): 198–212, 1996.

Israel Finkelstein argues against types of material culture (e.g., the four room house, collared rim storage jars, etc.) being interpreted as cultural signatures of early Israelites. He maintains that a migration from the lowlands to the highlands in the Iron Age I period (1200-1000 BCE) should not be considered the origin point of Israelite identity. Finkelstein explains that pottery variations are regional and stem from economic, environmental, and social factors. They are not reliable indicators of ethnicity. He further suggests that the migration that took place in Iron Age I should be considered the third wave in a long-standing settlement pattern in the highlands. Before the Iron Age, the highlands had experienced two waves of settlement as a response to climatic and social factors. In each prior case, settlers had shortly thereafter returned to a pastoral existence. The third wave of settlers, however, resulted, much later, in the early-Israelite kingdom attested in Iron II. While a taboo on pork among highlanders, evident in the Iron I period, may perhaps suggest an emergent communal sense of self, Finkelstein maintains that a coherent “Israelite” past—with its canonical narration of migrations and early Iron Age I rulers—was largely fabricated by Judean priests and rulers in the late Iron Age II (c. 9th -8th centuries BCE) to enhance social and religious cohesion, bolster the state against threats from neighboring polities, and provide retroactive support for their aspiration to control land from Galilee to the Negev. (AF, 2024)

Fitzjohn, M. “Constructing Identity in Iron Age Sicily.” In Communicating Identity in Italic Iron Age Communities, ed. Margarita Gleba and Helle W. Horsnaes,  Oxbow Books, 155–166, 2011. 

In this article, Matthew Fitzjohn explores how domestic spaces manifested aspects of ethnicity and identity in the Iron Age Sicilian site of Lentini. Several different ethnic groups can be identified at the site including Sikel, Sikan, Elymian, Phoenician, and Greek. Fitzjohn highlights the ways in which the combination of these identities is reflected in the architecture of this site. He first delves into how methods of construction are as important as the forms of the buildings themselves. Social relationships were required for the mobilization and creation of these structures, thus demonstrating the presence of community-building efforts at Lentini. Indeed, Fitzjohn emphasizes that for those who do not have previous experience in construction, the process of learning is an important part of becoming a “fully participating member of society.” Fitzjohn also describes how the forms of architecture that emerged at Lentini during this period were not characteristic of one distinct ethnic group but rather reflected the intermingling and combination of different groups. For instance, the rock-cut houses of Lentini contained features that come from both Greek architectural tradition as well as indigenous architectural traditions. The combination of different architectural traditions into the same domestic structures highlights the creation of “a new form of cultural space.” In conclusion, Fitzjohn urges readers to examine the architecture of Lentini differently, moving past strict demarcations of ethnic groups and rather examining the data through more complex interpretations of how the inhabitants of Lentini characterized their identities and cultural spaces. (OT 2023)

Frankel, David, and Jennifer M. Webb. “Three Faces of Identity: Ethnicity, Community, and Status in the Cypriot Bronze Age.” Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 11: 1–12, 1998.

David Frankel and Jennifer Webb establish three aspects of identity (ethnicity, community, and status) and discuss how these variables manifested in the Early, Middle, and Late Bronze Ages in Cyprus, as supported by archaeological evidence. The authors discuss ethnicity in the Early Bronze Age through a method that separates ethnic groups by their habitus. Habitus, a term coined by Pierre Bourdieu, is “an inclusive conceptualization of the entire social and material constitution of social groups, worked out in action.” By associating habitus with ethnicity, Frankel and Webb demonstrate the division in Early Bronze Age Cyprus between two ethnic groups: an indigenous Chalcolithic community and a newly arrived Philia people. This division is seen in a variety of archaeological evidence, from distinct building styles to cooking methods. In their investigation of pottery styles in the Middle Bronze Age, Frankel and Webb emphasize the importance of thinking about community. At this time, Cypriots possessed a single habitus and thus were ethnically homogeneous. Regional variations in ceramic style, however, aided local communities in asserting their own identities. Finally, the authors examine the use of seals as a marker of socio-economic status during the Late Bronze Age. Three styles of Cypriot cylinder seals each signified the different social statuses of their owners: the “Elaborate Style” denoted high status, the “Derivative Style” a middling status, and the “Common Style” a (relatively) low status. In addition to being differentiated by their aesthetics, the three styles were distinguished by the status of the entities depicted upon them. The Elaborate Style, for instance, often showcased the presence of deities. By contrast, the Derivative Style depicted more “semi-divine” entities (like the griffin in the image below), while only mortals appeared in the Common Style. (AG, 2023)

Fuller, Dorian. “Early Kushite Agriculture: Archaeobotanical Evidence from Kawa,” Sudan & Nubia 8: 70–74, 2004.

This work discusses plant remains from 8th-5th century BCE Kawa, a major urban center of the Napatan state in Nubia. Evidence of dates and grape plants may indicate the possibility of a plantation economy, which would have been made possible by the new irrigation systems introduced as a result of New Kingdom Egyptian colonialism. Fuller argues that the intensive agricultural work necessary to maintain such crops would have impacted conceptions of ethnicity in the region, as large groups of people would by necessity have been brought together, thus likely resulting in transculturation. So too, the shift to new crops may have caused a change in culinary habits—thereby affecting the foodways that constitute a key signifier of ethnic identity for many groups. (SJ-F, 2021)

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Gur-Arieh, Shira, Elisabetta Boaretto, Aren Maeir and Ruth Shahack-Gross,) “Formation Processes in Philistine hearths from Tell es-Safi/Gath (Israel): An Experimental Approach.” Journal of Field Archaeology 37 (2): 121-131, 2012.

The pebble hearth has been identified by archaeologists as an ethnic marker for the presence of Aegean migrants in the Early Iron Age southern Levant. In this article, the authors reconstructed excavated hearths to see how different modes of use would impact them and whether interpretations of soot patterns on pottery and hearths in Philistia and the Aegean reflected use-patterns. Their Philistine hearths were made using local materials at Tell es-Safi/Gath. The function of the pebbles was unclear, and the sudden explosion of hot pebbles in the hearth – alongside the rapid rate of heat loss from the pebbles to the air, compared with clay soil, may have meant that Philistine hearths were primarily used for low temperature cooking over long spans of time. They suggest that the pebbles served to spread heat further from an active fire at the center of the hearth so that food could be placed on the hot pebbles to cook, roast, or bake. Soot patterns on the cooking jugs, they concluded, came not from proximity to the fire but rather from exposure to the wind. (CH, 2023)

Haafsas, Henriette. Cattle Pastoralists in a Multicultural Setting: The C-Group People in Lower Nubia (2500 to 1500 BCE). Birzeit University, 2006.

This book investigates the ethnic identity of the C-group people of Lower Nubia and how their cattle pastoralist lifestyle impacted their culture. While much is still not known about the C-Group, as they did not have a literary tradition, much can be extrapolated from their art, funerary practices, and the impression they left on their literate Egyptian neighbors. This article provides an overview of the C-group’s cultural trajectory from its presumed ethnogenesis in the late Old Kingdom until its seeming disappearance in the early New Kingdom. It also draws on ethnographic studies of cattle pastoralist societies to argue women were very likely responsible for milking and therefore also for manufacturing pottery. If so, women would have had a significant role in manufacturing many of the material signatures that archaeologists utilize to identify the culture ethnically. (SJ-F, 2021)

Jansari, Sushma. “South Asia,” In The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek World, ed. R. Mairs. Routledge, 38-55. 2020. 

Sushma Jansari studies the Indo-Greek world using Aśokan pillars as a focal point. The sixteen tall sandstone columns with distinctive tops, found throughout the Ganges valley and Nepalese Terai, are generally thought to date back to Emperor Aśoka's rule from 268 to 232 BCE. Inscriptions on some of the pillars mention Aśoka's pilgrimage to Buddhist sites, a narrative supported by ancient Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang. Yet, some scholars doubt that the monarch could have commissioned all of them, given their wide geographical distribution, the variety in their quality, and the fact that a stylistically identical pillar at Deur Kothar bore a dedicatory inscription from a Buddhist monk. Thus, it is possible that other influential individuals may have also commissioned such pillars. These monuments were set up at important religious sites along routes used for pilgrimage. The discovery of rare materials like lapis lazuli and carnelian at these sites, and the fact that pilgrimage routes were also employed by traveling merchants on their journeys, points to the early importance of trade and trade routes in spreading both Buddhism and an influential iconography that signalled ethnic identity and power. The use of the pillars to mark important religious sites, along with the stupas that Ashoka built near some of them as places for devotional practice, were fundamental in spreading Buddhist teachings. Their importance continued over the centuries, with later leaders moving them or adding their own inscriptions. That the four-lion top of the Sarnath pillar—erected at the site at which the Buddha preached his first sermon—was made India's emblem in 1950 demonstrates the lasting resonance, even to a secular democratic state, of Aśoka's efforts to forge a powerful state centered on Buddhist teachings. (DN, 2024)

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Mac Sweeney, Naoíse. “Beyond Ethnicity: The Overlooked Diversity of Group Identities.” Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 22 (1): 101-126, 2009. 

Western Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age has been traditionally viewed as an intermediate zone between the western Greeks and the eastern Hittites. Given this geographical context, scholars have discussed the societies living within this “in-between” area in terms of ethno-cultural identities that blend elements from Greek and Near Eastern constructions of ethnicity. Yet the diverse range of societies within western Anatolia could have been unified by collective identities that were not determined by Greek and/or Hittite ethnic identity—or by ethnicity at all. Challenging the predominant focus of current studies on ethnicity when discussing group identity, Mac Sweeney proposes that scholars should not assume that group identities are always based on ethnicity. Instead, one should investigate any commonalities that may underlie the formation of specific group identities, including religious, linguistic, ethnic, social, or political factors. To argue this point, she examines the “fluid and changeable” group identities at the western Anatolian site of Beycesultan. Mac Sweeney reviews archaeological findings in Beycesultan for deliberate practices of group affiliation, ultimately concluding that conscious articulations of group identity were not constant but instead manifested by specific social and historical circumstances. For example, communal dining practices at Beycesultan in the Late Bronze Age utilized only local styles, possibly as a response to the unwelcome encroachment of the Hittites. However, any collective group identity expressed through material culture had vanished by the Early Iron Age, likely because foreign styles no longer indicated unwelcome political affiliations. (RT, 2023)

Roymans, Nico. “Conquest, Mass Violence and Ethnic Stereotyping: Investigating Caesar’s Actions in the Germanic Frontier Zone.” Journal of Roman Archaeology 32: 439–58, 2019. 

Paying special attention to the terminologies and ideologies attendant to “mass violence” and its examination in antiquity, Roymans’ article considers moments of contact between the indigenous population of Gaul and the technological developments in warfare heralded in by Caesar’s armies. Alongside material from Caesar’s own Commentarii, Roymans reads the archeological remnants of the Germanic frontier in order to excavate the “demographic impact” of these moments of conquest. While building to a larger exploration of stereotyping of the Gauls and how this played a role in the violence committed against them, Royman’s piece is heavily invested in the locality of Germanic frontier and considers closely how the specificity of place enables certain forms of extreme violence.  Royman’s archeology, which leans upon post-colonial theory, productively and originally presumes that material culture may help surface extreme forms of warfare and trauma more than their literary counterparts, and in this helps underscore a new way of reading the ethnographic imprint of warfare and the huge impact of racially motivated violence in antiquity. (ALR, 2022) 
 

Rothman, Mitchell. “Early Bronze Age Migrants and Ethnicity in the Middle Eastern Mountain Zone. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 (30), 2015.

Identifying meaningfully coherent ethnic groups in deep prehistory is a difficult task, yet Mitchell Rothman believes it is important to attempt, as ethnicity as a concept can wield great explanatory power. Rothman embraces what he calls the modern anthropological definition of ethnicity, which specifies that ethnicity only occurs in heterogenous societies in which difference is recognized and ascribed meaning. He likewise emphasizes that ethnicity is never static. Rothman analyses the Kura-Araxes cultural tradition of 3500-2450 BCE, which arose in the Caucasus Mountains and spread to other mountainous regions due, he suggests, to the desire of those who emigrated to take advantage of new economic activities centered on viniculture, metallurgy, and wool production. When people who bore this culture—with its distinctive ceramic, architectural, and ritual traditions—settled among those who spoke different languages and practiced different traditions they became “effectively ethnic groups” who eventually assimilated into the local cultures. Rothman ends by stating that this process, though it happened some five millennia ago, should not be consigned to the past. In the United States, for instance, many “people of distinct and strong ethnic identities” have migrated for economic opportunity and underwent “a similar process of assimilation” in which they lost some elements of their ethnic identity and incorporated others into a new and heterogeneous shared culture. (AR, 2024)

Shepherd, Gillian. “Archaeology and Ethnicity. Untangling Identities in Western Greece.” Dialogues d'histoire ancienne 10: 115–143, 2014. 

Gillian Shepherd focuses on ethnic identity in ancient Sicily during a time when the island was home to native Sicilian populations, as well as Greek and Phoenician colonies/city-states. Thucydides, as well as other literary sources, offer insights into the etic perspectives of identity in ancient Sicily. Thucydides details the mother cities of Greek colonies in Sicily, the presence of Phoenicians, and the three main Sicilian native groups as Sicans, Elymians, and Sikels. Despite this clear delineation of ethnicities set forth in the ancient textual record, Shepherd argues that the material evidence of Sicily does not reflect these same clear-cut boundaries. The material culture of the native, the Phoenician, and the Greek populations incorporate elements of one another, especially in burial practices for particular social groups. These patterns of mixed assemblages and practices serve to delineate between families or social sub-groups within an ethnic group, rather than act as ethnic signifiers. Shepherd’s findings thus remind archaeologists and historians that material culture does not necessarily reflect one’s ethnicity, but instead may serve specific purposes in different contexts; even more, these findings could indicate a plurality of identities in which ethnic boundaries shift. (IM, 2021)

Smith, Stuart Tyson. Wretched Kush: Ethnic Identities and Boundaries in Egypt’s Nubian Empire. Routledge, 2003.

Much emphasis is placed on Egypt’s interactions with the Greco-Roman world, but understanding the relationship between Egyptians and ethnic others during the pharaonic era provides valuable perspective. Of critical importance to any meaningful study of race in antiquity are the various kingdoms of Nubia, which often rivaled or even surpassed Egypt in power and importance. Through examining the archaeological record at the colonial Egyptian settlement of Askut and cemetery at Tombos, Smith is able to demonstrate the ways in which shifting power dynamics between Egypt and Nubia radically altered the way ethnicity was performed and conceived. In Egyptian-occupied Nubia at the fortress of Askut, for example, Nubian cookware increased steadily over time. Residue analysis indicates that the food prepared in Nubian cookware differed from that prepared in Egyptian cookware, which suggests that—as in the American Southwest—colonial men likely formed households with indigenous women. These women deeply influenced the foodways of their Egyptian partners and the foodways and other cultural practices of their Egypto-Nubian descendants. Smith uncovered unambiguous evidence for such intermarriages (or at least entanglements) at Tombos, where women buried according to Kerman traditions shared space in tombs with men and women buried according to Egyptian traditions. (EM, 2021)

Yasur-Landau, Assaf. "Old Wine in New Vessels: Intercultural Contact, Innovation and Aegean, Canaanite and Philistine Foodways." Tel Aviv 32 (2): 168–191, 2005.

Yasur-Landau’s article analyzes the transmission of pottery styles between ethnic groups. He notes that the willingness of a group to adopt a foreign style of pottery is often dictated by its perceived usefulness and its compatibility with established cultural practice. One major factor that affected trade in pottery between groups was cultural differences in feasting. Paintings of Mycenaean feasts, for example, depict elites drinking with their peers from long-stemmed goblets, whereas depictions of Canaanite feasts showcase hierarchy. Typically, a seated ruling figure holds a large drinking bowl, while subordinate figures grasp increasingly smaller bowls. These inherent differences explain some of the material remains. Stemmed vessels like kylixes were imported to the Levant less often than other Aegean vessels. The pottery forms that enjoyed widespread popularity, on the other hand, were compatible with preexisting Canaanite vessels. The “chariot krater” is an example of such an Aegean borrowing, though such vessels appear to have catered to Levantine tastes. Yasur-Landau notes that they were “marketed almost exclusively outside the boundaries of Mycenaean culture.” The form and shape conformed to Levantine counterparts, while the ownership of chariots signified elite status in both cultures. These kraters had the virtue of introducing a novel visual element to feasts while allowing established local traditions to continue. Aegean-style cooking pots, like kylixes, Yasur-Landau argues, did not appeal to Canaanites because they altered accepted practice. When Aegean settlers moved to the southern Levant in the twelfth century, they imported their practice of cooking with a flat based jug placed adjacent to a hearth. Because contemporary Canaanite houses generally lacked hearths, this style of cooking does not seem to have crossed ethnic boundaries, except perhaps through intermarriage. (GK, 2023)

Perhaps the most recognizable axis for the utterance, reception, and codification of race is the artistic, which evades the entanglement of terminologies and explication required by the textual all the while assigning certain ideals of color, form, and being to its subjects. The following list of sources address a variety of corpora, both artistic and art historical, in examining the development of race in the portraiture and visual imagination of the Greco-Roman world.

Batchelor, David. Chromophobia. Reaktion Books, 2000.

A pioneering work in chromatic, or color, theory, David Batchelor’s Chromophobia is an essential piece of critical art theory which explores the constructions and manifestations of a cultural fear of color. Though Batchelor does not exclusively focus on the Greco-Roman world, he certainly sees the antiquity as the antecedent for dominant strains of thought concerning beauty, aesthetics, and the production of material purity. Chromophobia helps not only to answer the question, “why were Greek statues whitewashed?” but beyond this, “why does it matter that those Greek statues were original colored?”. This latter question is necessary when approaching the wide array of material remnants of antiquity, and further in understanding the apparatuses which construct and curate chromophobia.

Clarke, John R. “‘Just Like Us’ Cultural Constructions of Sexuality and Race in Roman Art,” in Race-ing Art History: Critical Readings in Race and Art History, ed. Kymberly Pinder, 2002.

As facile a claim that “the Romans are not like us” is nowadays, the centuries long effort to make coherent the face of the modern west alongside that of the Greek and Roman society is deserving of legitimate exploration. Clarke’s work interrogates rather than dismisses this masculinized and white face painted upon the Roman body, looking both at the artistic works of the era alongside their various receptions and inspired productions, namely between Renaissance humanists, and later European fascist movements, and their engagement with the ideologies and art of Roman empire. The piece is helpful in drawing out the art historical processes that falsify, legitimize, and whitewash the imagination of empire and is especially useful when considering the pressing dynamic of race and gender in the wider construction of supremacist movements. (ALR, 2022)

Donkor, Kimathi. “Africana Andromeda: Contemporary Painting and the Classical Black Figure,” in Classicisms in the Black Atlantic, eds. I. Moyer, A. Lecznar, and H. Morse. Oxford University Press, 163–194,  2020.

An artist whose primary medium is painting, Kimanthi Donkor examines representations of Andromeda – an Ethiopian princess, who was sentenced to be sacrificed to a sea monster as punishment for her mother’s hubristic vanity. Andromeda is eventually rescued by the hero Perseus. Donkor writes in an interesting and accessible fashion of his attempts while at the Tate Modern to discern Andromeda’s placement in the canon of Classical and classically influenced artwork. Specifically, he is concerned with the racial politics of her portrayal as Black or White. The piece is a wonderful exploration of a non-textual archive through the eyes of an artist. (ALR, 2020)

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Droth, Martina and Michael Hatt, “The Greek Slave by Hiram Powers: A Transatlantic Object." Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide: A Journal of Nineteenth-Century Visual Culture

In this examination of Hiram Powers’ The Greek Slave, Martina Droth and Michael Hatt regard this famous classicizing 19th-century sculpture and its six commissioned marble copies as a multi-object, which drew new meanings from its various contexts (being displayed in slave markets in New Orleans, in the house of an abolitionist, and in juxtaposition with other statues in themed exhibits for various purposes). As an embodiment of whiteness, Christianity, and the imagined cultural link between the West and ancient Greece, The Greek Slave was one of the most widely reproduced sculptures of the 19th-century. When the artwork is considered in the context of the American enslavement of African peoples and simultaneously viewed as an embodiment of a still resonant racial politics that values an Anglo-Saxon ideal, the fame and controversy surrounding these statues is easily appreciated. The sculptures remain on display in different countries for different audiences and continue to be exhibited in new ways that create and continue the many conversations surrounding the piece. The visible differences between subject of the statue and the real women stolen, sold, and enslaved during the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade when it was produced continue to drive discourse and have produced several reflective works in riposte (see left). (TNK, 2023)

Gates-Foster, Jennifer. “Achaemenids, Royal Power, and Persian Ethnicity,” in A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean, ed. J. McInerney. John Wiley & Sons Publishers, 175-193, 2014.

Jennifer Gates-Foster explores the interactions between ethnic identities and imperial government in the case of the Achaemenid Empire. She looks to the art of the Achaemenid empire and its incorporation of artistic customs and depictions of conquered peoples. The portrayals of different ethnic groups under Achaemenid control were central to the empire’s ideology, as they created a visual representation of the diversity and expanse of the state. Similarly, she indicates that Achaemenid kings gradually incorporated more art forms and iconographic motifs derived from the art of conquered groups to again emphasize the power of the king and the empire. Gates-Foster points out, however, that the interactions between the empire and ethnic groups in the satrapies was much more complicated, and the relationship between the two as displayed in art remains unclear. Gates-Foster’s approach to this work thus provides a useful lens for viewing state perceptions of ethnicity, not local perceptions. (IM, 2021)

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Ferris, Iain. "The Enemy Without, The Enemy Within: More Thoughts on Images of Barbarians in Greek and Roman Art," Theoretical Roman Archaeological Journal, 22–28, 1996.

Ferris – continuing his previous analysis of the ‘barbarian’ character in ancient art – contrasts the Ludovisi Gaul by Epigonus (a Greek sculpture that had to be recreated in Rome) and a gilt diptych of the semi-barbarian general Stilicho at the Monza Cathedral Treasury. He does so in order to determine how these works provide insight into the social and cultural mindset of the creators and audience of their times. Where the Ludovisi Gauls sculpture depicts a nude man of great force and motion – “his body [as] wild power personified” – the sculpture of the Romano-Vandal Stilicho, possibly self-commissioned, has a static figure and stoic face. Additionally, the woman displayed in the Ludovisi Gauls is described as limp and lifeless (forever infertile), whereas Stilicho is portrayed with both his wife Serena and his son. Working within the framework of colonial discourse, Ferris finds that to some degree works of art like these serve to exoticize and create a sense of nostalgia for the strength and pure primitivism of the ‘barbarian,’ but also this stereotype is in direct opposition to the ideal character of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Ferris’ work is an excellent example of how approaches through art history can shed let on how author or artist perspectives shape these stock characters of the ancient world. (HC, 2021)

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Franklin, John C. “Ethnicity and Musical Identity in the Lyric Landscape of Early Cyprus.” Greek and Roman Musical Studies 2 (1): 146-176, 2014.

Locals and immigrants resident on Cyprus inhabited a cultural crossroads in which Near Eastern and Aegean ideas had long met and mingled. This article discusses the influence of both Greek and Phoenician culture on the ethnic identity of Cypriots as shown through the artistic representation of lyres in the Early Iron Age. Franklin describes several artifacts that are taken to indicate foreign influence, including images from a Kouklian kálathos-vessel featuring a warrior playing a “Greek-style” round-based lyre in a manner perhaps reminiscent of Homer’s portrayal of Achilles. There are also several Cypriot bowls portraying scenes of music with different combinations of dancers, musicians, offering-bearers, and altars. In the scenes, the “orchestra” aligns with Levantine traditions in its combination of lyres, hand percussion, and double pipes. The presence of multiple lyrists in a musical group is reminiscent of the massed kinnor-lyres that performed in Jerusalem and of cultic lyre players from Cypriot Paphos known as kinyrádai. Though there is a distinction between eastern and western lyres in the Mediterranean—western ones having a rounder, more symmetrical structure, and eastern ones being more asymmetrical and thinner—depictions on Cyprus tend to be intermediary between the two. Franklin suggests that rather than viewing Cyprus as a “passive matrix for the implementation of foreign lyric identities,” it is likely that Cypro-Aegean hybrids had existed on the island since the Late Bronze Age, as implied by certain votive figurines. If so, the Iron Age lyres would be neither “Aegean” nor “Near Eastern,” they would be Cypriot (MB, 2024)

Hemingway, Seán, curator. “Chroma: Ancient Sculpture in Color”. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Showing July 5, 2022, to March 26, 2023.

While reading about and engaging virtually with polychrome is a key point of reorienting against the whitewashing of Greco-Roman art, the opportunity to witness this in person is all the more rewarding, an opportunity which is available to individuals in New York City until the Spring of 2023. Set at one of the largest homes to those very emblematic white marbles, the MET’s new exhibit which colorizes some of the same works sitting in their revised form just halls away is an important moment for curation at American art museums. Including an augmented reality component which lets visitors toggle between and imagine their own colorized worlds for the marbles, the exhibit opens the doors to not just study polychrome but to perhaps restore and repair the tradition. (ALR, 2022)

Huntsman, Theresa. “Hellenistic Etruscan Cremation Urns from Chiusi.” Metropolitan Museum Journal 49 (1): 141–50, 2014. 

Ethnic signifiers are often particularly accentuated when associated with rites of passage. Thus, the objects utilized in such ritual contexts can offer exceptional insight into a culture. Terracotta funerary urns from the city of Chiusi in Etruria, may serve as a case in point. Manufactured as a sort of tomb for the Etruscan deceased, these objects provide a window into the funerary practices and rituals of the Etruscans. Chiusine urns required extensive labor by artisans, who carved militaristic scenes in the base as well as figures of the deceased on the lids and etchings of their names in Etruscan script. It seems, however, that the urn production was somewhat standardized. Each lid figure is of similar basic form, with only hair and facial features varying significantly between each one. Thus, thanks to this relatively systematic approach to their production, Chiusine urns offered an economically varied segment of society with “formal” burials. Because female figures on the lids recline just as males do in—a pose representative of banqueting—Huntsman further suggests that women were customarily included in banquets and also that the funerary ritual was comprised of a communal feast. In their distinctive celebration of the deceased, these urns demonstrate the prosperity of Chiusi, its relatively egalitarian ethos during the Hellenistic period, and its pride in its distinctive traditions. (AR, 2024)

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Malamud, Margaret and Malamud, Martha. “The Petrification of Cleopatra in Nineteenth Century Art,” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics 28 (1): 31–51, 2020.

Classicists Margaret Malamud and Martha Malamud present a fascinating case study of two nineteenth century renditions of Cleopatra: one by William Wetmore Story, a white sculptor, and another by Edmonia Lewis, a Native American and African American sculptor. Story made the deliberate choice to give “African features” to his Cleopatra (1860), a drastic deviation “from classicizing portrayals of the queen” (it is important to note that this was received as an artistic choice and not as a statement of racial identity). On the other hand, Lewis chose to portray Cleopatra as white in The Death of Cleopatra (1876). This poignant article examines Lewis’s choice, which was perhaps established by her “encounters with white male artistic and literary fantasies of Cleopatra and her legendary sexual allure…” along with her “awareness of contemporary racist associations with excessive Black female sexuality.” With explorations of the ways racism functions even within Black representation, this is a relevant read for those who wish to learn more about the talented artist Edmonia Lewis and about race through artistic reception. (RT, 2021)

Martin, S. Rebecca. “Ethnicity and Greek Art History in Theory and Practice,” in Theoretical Approaches to the Archaeology of Ancient Greece: Manipulating Material Culture, ed. Lisa C. Nevett, University of Michigan Press, 143–63, 2017.

Alongside an analysis of Greek artistic conventions for representing ethnicity, Rebecca Martin examines the relationship between representation and identity in Greek art history. Through her discussion of naturalism and illusionism, she complicates current scholarly understandings of ethnicity in Greek art and proposes that representations of difference in Greek material culture are neither consistent nor documentary. She illustrates her main points via an in-depth case study of Alexander’s Sarcophagus, a large (3 x 1.5 m.) and elaborately carved funerary monument found in the Ayaa Nekropolis near Sidon (see below). Martin problematizes modern interpretations of this fourth century BCE artwork as Greek or Hellenistic and favors, instead, a Phoenician and Sidonian reading. She writes about the role of patronage, asserting that “perceptions of ethnicity of artist and patron can color interpretation.” She also warns that the privileging of formal or compositional Greek elements in art can lead to a misclassification that disregards the artwork’s context, such as its patronage or site of manufacture. Finally, she emphasizes the value of ethnicity as a tool for “uncovering the humanity of ancient artwork,” proposing that archaeology must utilize a contextualized, sensitive exploration of material culture in the ancient world. (EGC, 2024)

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Matić, Uroš. “Minoans", kftjw and the "islands in the middle wɜḏ wr. " Beyond ethnicity.” Ägypten und Levante 24: 275–292, 2014.

This paper rejects the historical classification of the Minoans as an ethnic group. Such categories fail to provide a responsible reconstruction of the past and instead reflect a nineteenth-century obsession with racial, colonialist, and nationalist discourse. Uroš Matić argues that ancient identity categories are far too complex to organize into straightforward labels vis-à-vis the archaeological record. To illustrate this point, Matić critiques the easy equation of the Minoans with the Egyptian term kftjw. The historic justification for the conflation of the two terms comes from Theban Eighteenth Dynasty tombs in which Minoans—themselves picked out by physical characteristics such as hair and skin color—are labeled kfjtw. This interpretation gained broad acceptance even though from a grammatical perspective, kftjw refers to a geographic region rather than a people. Furthermore, the term kftjw was not exclusively used to label Aegean figures in the Theban tombs; it was also employed to reference Syrian and Syrian-Aegean hybrid figures. For instance, the Tomb of Menkheperreseneb depicts three Syrian-type figures in the first register, one of which is referred to as the “prince of kftjw .” In the past, these labels have been disregarded as mere inconsistencies or artistic mistakes in order to uphold the erroneous equation of Minoans with kfjtw. By contrast, Matić argues that these “inconsistencies” are meaningful in their own right, and indicate that the New Kingdom Egyptians understood a conceptual link between the Aegeans and Syrians. (EC 2023)

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Morales, Helen, curator. “Harmonia Rosales: Entwined”. Art, Design, and Architecture Museum, University of California, Santa Barbara. Showing January 19, 2022, to May 1, 2022.

Bringing together the mythologies and conceits of Yoruba and Hellenic, and otherwise Western world, the work of Harmonia Rosales allows its viewers to imagine a Classicism which is Black in its presentation, figural representation, and aesthetic sensibility. The exhibit, which is curated around the very tension of its composite parts, hosts alongside the works of Rosales a series of talks which speak to the import of Black Classicism and its visual entrapments, including Classics professor Dan-el Padilla Peralta’s lecture “The Greeks are Then, the Orishas are Now” and religious studies professor Elizabeth Pérez’s “Decolonizing the Orishas: Harmonia Rosales & the Un-Whitewashing of Black Atlantic Divinity”. The collection is an important source of examination to look outside literary reception to consider instead the very face and human subject of Black Classics. (ALR, 2022)

Savoy, Bénédicte and Sarr, Felwine. “The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage: Toward a New Relational Ethics,” trans. Drew Burk. Commissioned by Emmanuel Macron, 2018.

In 2018, following decades of political pressure and social movements, the popular tide in France had shifted towards considering the possible restitution of the artifacts France had pillaged, looted, and otherwise unethically acquired during its colonial reign of northwestern Africa. As such, PM Macron commissioned French art historian Bénédicte Savoy and Senegalese scholar Felwine Sarr to write a report on the impact of the lost artifacts on the African continent and the possible futures restitution may bring about. The report is a triumph of public intellectualism, bringing together centuries of context to the matter of cultural theft. The report humanizes “the artifact” not as an evidentiary thing that provides truth within the academy but as a holder of immense cultural and personal value, one whose absence deprives people of a past and whose presence is necessary in building futures. While archaeologists working with antiquity continue to excavate lands in whose presence they have little stake, an undeniably important pursuit, the Savoy-Sarr report is a grounding work that reframes the narrative life of artifacts and suggests the value of their remaining in their countries of origin. As of February 2021, no artifacts have been restituted to Africa from France. (ALR, 2021)

Skovmøller, Amalie. Facing the Colours of Roman Portraiture: Exploring the Materiality of Ancient Polychrome Forms. De Gruyter Press, 2020.

While several curatorial projects and articles have dedicated themselves towards the work of understanding polychrome in antiquity, Skovmøller’s is the sole monograph which attends to these issues and their various implications in their totality. Of great interest to Skovmøller are the processes portraiture coloring and the economies which produced the dyes and textiles used in this work. In addition, Skovmøller carefully works through the meaning of coloration thinking about the work of polychrome not only Roman portraiture’s reception but to the publics which would have viewed these works. While the work of ethnicity is tangential and not necessarily focalized in Skovmøller’s work, it is undeniable that polychrome, and its erasure, have shaped our understanding of race in antiquity. Further, and critically, in her examination of the systems of production for the various paints and dyes used in Roman portraiture, the global economies and artistic practices necessary for the development of “the Roman man” come into focus. (ALR, 2022)

Tanner, Jeremy. "Race in Classical Art." Apollo 173 (584): 24-29, 2011.

Interpretations of the past are often colored by the biases of the present, and this is certainly true when it comes to ancient art. In his article, Jeremy Tanner briefly summarizes many of the issues in historic interpretations of depictions of Black individuals in Greco-Roman art and advocates for a methodological shift in analyzing these images. Tanner discusses how many historic analyses of Black figures in ancient art were used to reinforce racist ideas and the subordinate position of Black people in the racial hierarchy. This connection between ancient Africans and contemporary Black people was also used to connect the ancient Greeks with contemporary White people of European heritage. Tanner pushes back on this connection and argues that these analyses likely do not correspond to how Greco-Roman peoples thought of themselves racially. By focusing on exaggerated traits as indices of racial difference, as well as the specific form and context of a depiction, Tanner argues that it is possible to gain insight into how racial ideas underlay ancient iconography. Tanner also emphasizes the need to take concepts of class and social status into account in these analyses. By providing a framework for a richer and more nuanced analysis of ancient art, we can better understand the form and impact of ancient concepts of race and racism as well as their artistic legacies in more modern times. (JB, 2024)

A school of thought pioneered by Black scholars in the mid 1980s, Critical Race Theory (CRT) transformed the reading of literature, history, law, and nearly every other facet of the academy by suggesting that race, especially white supremacy, permeates the fiber of the world. CRT is a framework that can be widely applied and serves to question the fundamental assumptions of the scholarship and knowledge production through the complication of racial(ized) thought. Of the following sources Omi and Winant serve as an introduction to the topic, while other sources provide examples of how CRT can be utilized in classical research or suggest innovations to the framework itself.

Derbew, Sarah. Untangling Blackness in Greek Antiquity. Cambridge University Press, 2022.

Not since Frank Snowden’s work on Blackness in antiquity in the 70s and 80s, which predates the vast growth of CRT in academia, has a monograph so wholly and comprehensively taken on the titular issue. Derbew’s book, which grounds itself between critical race theory and performance studies, is nearly encyclopedic on the matter, bringing into its frame material, literary, historiographic, and geographic/ethnographic material concerning the figural Black person in ancient Greece. The huge archive Derbew constructs in the appendices of this work are enough to serve as an indispensable resource for any student of race in antiquity. Yet more so, it is her erudite analysis of this material which itself cleaves towards answering the question, “what did black skin mean in antiquity?”, crafted through the examination of several landmark works of contemporary theory that makes the work such a important piece at the intersection of CRT and Classics. (ALR, 2022)

Haley, Shelly. “Be Not Afraid of the Dark: Critical Race Theory and Classical Studies,” in Prejudice and Christian Beginnings: Investigating Race, Gender and Ethnicity in Early Christian Studies, eds. Laura Nasrallah and Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, Fortress Press, 2009.

Haley, a Black woman and scholar of Latin poetry, masterfully explores how the two often isolated fields of Classics and Critical Race Studies can be meaningfully and revealingly placed into dialogue. Moving through some of the best known Latin works – among them selections from Catullus and Vergil – Haley puts her own translations alongside well known alternatives in order to demonstrate the power of taking a common Latin adjective instead as a racial descriptor. This work is especially useful to readers of Latin, for whom the text demonstrates how race and racial thought are encoded in poems that are often taken as race-neutral. (ALR, 2020)

Hartman, Saidiya. “Venus in Two Acts”. Small Axe 12 (2): 1–14, 2008.

In her studies of “the afterlife of slavery,” Saidiya Hartman has forged new ground in interpreting Atlantic slave trade documents and in archival studies more generally. “Venus in Two Acts” is Hartman’s attempt to solve the mystery of Venus’ abundance and meaning for enslaved women in the Caribbean. Reading the diaries of Thomas Thistlewood – a cruel and perverse slavemaster who primarily wrote in Latin – Hartman demonstrates the violence of archives that serve to silence Black slaves. Aside from its overt connections to antiquity, “Venus in Two Acts” is essential reading for the student of CRT for its discussion of critical fabulation. In Hartman’s own words, “The intention [of critical fabulation] isn’t anything as miraculous as recovering the lives of the enslaved or redeeming the dead, but rather laboring to paint as full a picture of the lives of the captives as possible. This double gesture can be described as straining against the limits of the archive to write a cultural history of the captive, and, at the same time, enacting the impossibility of representing the lives of the captives precisely through the process of narration.” This tool, widely and keenly applicable to the Classical canon, which is often marked more by its silence than its voice, will enhance the theoretical approach taken by any scholar. (ALR, 2020)
 

Hendricks, Margo. “Coloring the Past, Rewriting Our Future: RaceB4Race.” Speech at Race and Periodization conference at the Folger Institute, 2019. 

Speaking at a panel on Race and Periodization, literary theorist Margo Hendricks called for the abandonment of Premodern Race Studies – something she sees regularly and unproductively performed in academic settings – in favor of Premodern Critical Race Studies. The impact of the word “critical” here adds an important valence, one that pushes against the white academic seizure of Premodern Race Studies. Premodern Critical Race Studies, Hendricks notes, “actively pursues not only the study of race in the premodern, not only the way in which periods helped to define, demarcate, tear apart, and bring together the study of race in the premodern era, but the way that outcome, the way those studies can affect a transformation of the academy and its relationship to our world. [Premodern Critical Race Studies] is about being a public humanist. It’s about being an activist.” Clearly, the field of Critical Race and antiquity is still actively forming. Listening to the scholars who are currently pushing the boundaries of conceptualizing race in antiquity and reshaping these limits is vital. (ALR, 2020)

Isaac, Benjamin. The Invention of Race in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press, 2006.

Isaac never marks out his method as being in line with CRT – partly because his primary interest is in the development of antisemitism as a product of antiquity rather than anti-Blackness – but the text is placed here as it makes not just a claim of race, but of racism, which is explored through the lens of white supremacist values. In many ways, Isaac is the antithesis to Snowden in Before Color Prejudice (mentioned earlier in the bibliography), as he finds there to be a direct line of development between Greco-Roman supremacy and European white supremacy, which he substantiates in the reading of imperial texts. Isaac is one of the few scholars of Classics who suggests that racism is itself ancient, and this is a hypothesis, contested though it may be, that is worth unpacking and sitting with. The text will be particularly useful for students of Jewish history and those interested in the formation of genocidal thought and holocaust, but serves a broader function of forcing confrontation with racism itself. (ALR, 2021)

McCoskey, Denise Eileen. “Race before ‘Whiteness’: Studying Identity in Ptolemaic Egypt.” Critical Sociology28 (1–2): 13–39, 2002. 

Denise McCoskey introduces the lens of racial theory to understand how ethnic identity was constructed in Ptolemaic Egypt and to illustrate how the study of race can reframe our conceptions of the ancient world. Traditionally, scholars of Ptolemaic Egypt have focused on the mutability of ethnic categories, especially with reference to military men and governmental officeholders under the Macedonian government. Yet, as McCoskey points out, the use of “ethnicity” as a framing device is too limited to account for the extreme power disparities evident in Ptolemaic Egypt. The subordination of the vast majority of native Egyptians to a privileged category of Greek immigrants forces a recognition that a racialized hierarchy had been created. McCoskey explores evidence of highly racialized rhetoric in literature and documentary texts, and she notes that almost without exception high office and tax breaks were reserved for individuals who bore Greek names and either were Greek or else performed a Greek identity in the course of their duties. Significantly, McCoskey’s preference for utilizing the term “race” rather than “ethnicity” is not because it claims phenotypic difference as paramount but rather because “it connotes, and refers investigation to, issues of power.” (CG, 2024)

McCoskey, Denise. Race: Antiquity and its Legacy (Ancients and Moderns). Oxford University Press, 2012.

In Race: Antiquity and its Legacy, McCoskey provides the most salient generalist’s overview to race and ethnicity in the ancient world. McCoskey’s thesis is that race in antiquity is distinct from the way race comes to function after the colonial era but that ancient ideas concerning race gave way and perhaps even gave power to more modern conceptions. While this notion might seem obvious, McCoskey’s text eruditely guides the reader through these ideas with accessible analogies. For example, she places the dichotomy of “Black versus white” in dialogue with the sense of “Greek versus Barbarian” in the post Persian War context. Race: Antiquity and its Legacy, while certainly not an anthology, provides numerous primary sources in a distilled and contextualized form, thereby granting its reader not only theory but also applicable further reading. This work is a necessary companion to any formal introduction of race and ethnicity in the ancient world. (ALR, 2020)

Omi, Michael and Winant, Howard. Racial Formation in the United States. Routledge Press, 1994.

Understanding race and ethnicity in the ancient world does not necessarily require experts on antiquity to give meaning, context, and important intervention to the texts and materials considered. Michael Omi and Howard Winant are sociologists concerned with America in the modern era, yet their construction of racial formation theory is a valuable model for thinking through ancient contexts. Most importantly, Omi and Winant challenge common notions of race as fixed and codified, proposing instead an idea of race as unstable, dynamic, and adaptive to its milieu – especially in the context of political and social conflicts. This theory is laid out primarily in chapter 4, “The Theory of Racial Formation,” which helpfully defines and complicates the terms race, racialization, and racialized. Racial Formation in the United States stands out in the bibliography of any student of Classics or ancient studies, as it gives an insightful and timely “outsiders” take on the matters at hand. (ALR, 2020)
 

Rankine, Patrice. “Classics for All?: Liberal Education and the Matter of Black Lives,” in Classicisms in the Black Atlantic, eds. I. Moyer, A. Lecznar, and H. Morse. Oxford University Press, 267–289, 2020.

Rankine’s examination of issues of access and delimitation of thought in the post-Obama era lends itself to an important discussion of the point of Classics itself. Rankine notes that Classics for All, a campaign to give universal access to Greek and Latin language learning for school children, is problematized by “[its] idea of unidirectional mastery, namely that the recipients benefit from the discipline and leave it as pristine as they found it.” Rankine draws a meaningful analogy between the loss of particularity in approaching Classics and the Neoliberal flattening of the Black Lives Matter movement. (ALR, 2020)

Samuels, Tristan. "Herodotus and the Black Body: A Critical Race Theory Analysis," Journal of Black Studies 46 (7): 723–741, 2015.

In this article, Tristan Samuels confirms the existence of Blackness in ancient Egypt and reorients our understanding of the origins of anti-Blackness in Western thought. In examining the writings of Herodotus, Western scholars of the late 20th century actively engaged in the “denial of ancient Egypt’s Blackness” by acknowledging the “so-called Black features” of Egyptians (like hair texture or skin tone) described in ancient Greek writing, while also maintaining that the “ancient Egyptians could have been anything—but Black.” This erasure is the product of a white supremacist lens in Greco-Roman studies that “equates ‘Negro’ with inferiority and ugliness” but according to Samuels, this lens started before 20th century academia and even before the transatlantic slave-trade. Drawing on Herodotus 3.101, he argues that the Greek historian ‘othered’ the Black body, promoting ideas of the hypersexuality, savagery, and cowardice. Here, Samuels illustrates both the prevalence of Blackness in the Classical sphere and argues for the “antiquity of anti-Black racial prejudice” in Western thought. (HH, 2021)

Umachandran, Mathura. “Disciplinecraft: Towards an Anti-racist Classics”, TAPA 152 (1): 25–31, 2022.

Opening with the trenchant question, “what would it take to imagine and to materialize an anti-racist discipline of Classics”, Mathura Umachandran’s enormously quotable essay found in an equally important issue of TAPA swirling around the epistemic import of “Classics after COVID”, is indispensable to a critical examination of the field of Classics. Balanced on a series of suggestions and attended by a wealth of citations, from Agbamu to Wynter, to guide any rigorous effort to render anti-racist the mechanics of the field, this piece, despite its relative brevity, coheres a wide variety of anti-racist efforts implored by, and suggestibly against, the larger political movements of academia. It is a valuable resource which merits frequent return and handles its examined subject with a necessarily critical insider’s eye. (ALR, 2022)

The communities of antiquity, especially those in well-established city-states, were not comprised only of citizens and slaves, but of various people who might otherwise be called “immigrants” — expats, refugees, children of the foreign born. These identities were often deeply political and the court cases, laws, and treaties related to them formed the legal core of many cities. The following list of sources considers the hierarchies and dynamics between citizen and foreigner, especially viewing classes of individuals who fall outside this binary, including metics, and the ways individuals could move between these sects, including intermarriage.

Aneziri, Sophia. “World Travellers: The Associations of Artists of Dionysus,” in Wandering Poets in Ancient Greek Culture: Travel, Locality, and Pan-Hellenism, eds. R. Hunter and I. Rutherford, Cambridge UP, 217–236, 2009.

Sophia Aneziri examines the Artists of Dionysus during the Hellenistic and imperial period and their formal associations. The development of festivals and contests dedicated to artistic performances created an environment which attracted participants and audience members from a variety of regions in the Hellenistic world. Interestingly, several of these associations—including two of the largest ones—defined themselves by the places they travelled to rather than their place of origin. As for individual members, their homelands were less relevant than their identity as a member of one of these associations. Membership also had concrete political and social meaning, allowing this membership to function as a form of citizenship for the individuals. In many ways the guilds functioned as their own states, although individual members did not necessarily have citizenship in the cities where these associations were situated. The political and social functions of these organizations included dispatching emissaries to festivals and competitions as well as engaging in diplomacy with “cities, kings, and later emperors.” As members of these ethnically heterogeneous associations, individual artists were granted privileges of security and inviolability that effectively granted them protections akin to or greater than those of the citizens of the city states they visited. (MB, 2024)

Andrade, N.J. "Drops of Greek in a Multilingual Sea: The Egyptian Network and Its Residential Presences in the Indian Ocean." Journal of Hellenic Studies 137: 42–66, 2017.

This article delves into the significant impact of the Hellenistic Greek world on the Indian Ocean, highlighting the interactions between Greek-speaking Egyptians and individuals in India known as Yavanas during the first and second centuries AD. It examines if these Roman Egyptian merchants established permanent communities in Indian ports and investigates the appropriation of the term 'Yavana'—originally referring to Greeks in northern India—by certain inhabitants near the Gulf of Barygaza and the western Ghats. The narrative is enriched by examining sources such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, authored by a figure deeply involved in these multicultural exchanges. This document and others provide insights into how these expatriates shared their language and culture and played a significant role in the broader commercial and cultural network connecting regions across the Indian Ocean. This led to the creation of residential settlements by these communities which became hubs for sharing local knowledge. The piece touches on epigraphic evidence from Indian sites like the Hoq Cave on Socotra and Buddhist monasteries where there are inscriptions left by self-described Yavanas. These inscriptions, along with Tamil poems, suggest a blend of identities and cultural interactions facilitated by maritime activities. (DN, 2024)

Boegehold, Alan. “Perikles’ Citizenship Law of 451/0 BC.” in Athenian Identity and Civic Ideology, eds. A. Boegehold and A. Scafuro, Johns Hopkins University Press, 57–66, 1994.

Alan L. Boegehold explores the motivating factors behind an Athenian law which limited Athenian citizenship to “men born of two Athenians.” Boegehold notes that the Greek philosopher Aristotle explained this law as a way to reduce the already large body of citizens; he argues, however, that this does not explain the motivations for limiting the population of citizens. Boegehold tackles this issue by first exploring the perks of citizenship, such as protections against torture and arrest, the ability to hold office, and the right to own and inherit property. This last perk is the most important to Boegehold, given the limited amount of land in Attika, the region surrounding Athens. He argues that previous laws of citizenship were unclear, leading to many legal disputes and subdivisions of land. Thus, Perikles’ redefinition of citizenship was motivated by a desire to limit the population, as Aristotle said, so as to ameliorate these recurring problems. Boegehold’s chapter therefore offers an example of how economic and political factors influence the legal definitions of ethnicity (IM, 2021)

Čulík-Baird, Hannah, “Archias the Good Immigrant,” Rhetorica 38 (4): 382–410, 2020.

Much of the contemporary writing analyzing Cicero’s Pro Archia explores its role as a defense for the arts and humanities and neglects the underlying nature of the speech. In this article, Hannah Čulík-Baird focuses on contextualizing the larger political and cultural relations within the Roman Period during Cicero's lifetime that resulted in the case against the poet Archius and Cicero’s defense on his behalf. Much of Cicero’s language in this oration elides the defendant’s Syrian’s heritage in favor of his status as a Hellenized individual, capable of bringing benefits to the Roman Empire. Cicero is thus acknowledging anti-immigrant sentiments in Rome by framing Archias as a “good immigrant.” This rhetoric in Pro Archia gives scholars insight into the social and political debates concerning the immigration to Rome of individuals and groups from its conquered and surrounding nations. (TNK 2023)

Demetriou, Denise. Negotiating Identity in the Ancient Mediterranean: The Archaic and Classical Greek Multiethnic Emporia. Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Drawing upon a wide range of historical, archaeological, and anthropological evidence, Denise Demetriou explores the multifaceted nature of identity formation within the cosmopolitan emporia of the ancient Mediterranean. By focalizing port cities and nodes in which different ethnic groups regularly came into contact, Demetriou emphasizes the importance of multicultural interaction to the formation of a shared “Mediterranean” identity among Phoenicians, Greeks, Etruscans, and others. For example, polytheism and fluidity in religious identity led over time to greater similarity and more communal ritual practice. Similarly, the fact that artisans from different cultural backgrounds often shared workshops in cosmopolitan settings resulted in increased visual hybridity and intercultural legibility. Overall, she suggests that civic identity was likely more salient than racial or ethnic identity in such commercial centers. Demetriou argues that authors who are invested in highlighting contrasts between “Greek” and “Barbarian” identities, or between the colonized and their colonizers, have largely ignored areas of common ground and understanding. Identity was not fixed, she states, but rather shaped by various factors such as social status, ethnicity, religion, and material interaction. (SC, 2024)

Dietler, Michael, and Carolina López-Ruiz. Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia: Phoenician, Greek, and Indigenous Relations. University of Chicago Press, 2009.

This volume, stemming from an interdisciplinary symposium, draws upon a diverse array of archaeological, textual, and artistic evidence to explore the indigenous and colonial populations of ancient Iberia. Various articles delve into topics such as agrarian practices, trade, colonial economies, cultural transformations, urban landscapes, and the interplay of these issues within the realms of Iberian, Greek, and Phoenician spheres. At the time of its publication, there were few English studies on ancient Iberian history, particularly those viewed through a colonial perspective. By entrenching ancient Iberians in a colonial history, this volume offers valuable insight into the complex set of relations between the indigenous peoples and settler populations. Its anthropological approach offers novel insights. This is particularly the case with respect to Michael Dietler’s careful consideration of the term "colonial," which today is frequently employed loosely in discussions of antiquity and territorial expansion. The term “colonial” can be useful when contextualizing ancient Iberia, but Dietler also acknowledges the dangers of introducing anachronisms. Ultimately, Dietler and López-Ruiz deliver on their promise to deliver “fresh cross-disciplinary approaches” and “a wealth of exciting new cutting-edge research.” (EKM, 2024)

Euripides. Medea.

Euripides’ exploration of ancient ethnicity in "Medea" delves into the discord between Greek and non-Greek identities, with a particular emphasis on Medea's status as a foreigner. Euripides’ play forefronts the challenges faced by those perceived as "other" in Greek society, whether due to their cultural difference or their status as a member of an out-group. As a foreigner and a woman in a patriarchal society, Medea epitomizes the challenges of being culturally “othered.” The classical world is often depicted as culturally homogenous, and Euripides offers a compelling lens that potentially reveals a complex societal tapestry of racial and ethnic dynamics. Through his depiction of Medea as a Colchian princess, readers and audiences gain valuable insight into the challenges faced by foreigners in the ancient Mediterranean. As an immigrant in Corinth, Medea disrupts the notion of Greek cultural exclusivity. Her customs, rituals, and beliefs clash against local societal expectations, hindering her assimilation into society. The prevailing Greek-structured system rendered even privileged migrants disproportionately vulnerable to the threat of dislocation, reinforcing their societal subordination. Although set in a mythic past, Euripides dramatizes the invisible yet deadly social and political forces that foreign women such as Medea faced in fifth century Athens. (EKM, 2024)

Gardner, Andrew. “Post-Colonial Rome, and Beyond. Religion, Power and Identity”. Revista de Historiografía 36: 309–320, 2021.

Working at the nexus of various cultures, eras, and methods, Gardner’s recent article helps to draw out the processual advantage post-coloniality lends to the study of Roman archeology, specifically here in North Africa. Gardner’s rendering of post-coloniality is deeply textured, moving between Roman empire and Romanization’s interface with North Africa in relation to British empire and its interface with the same region. Through this triangulation, Gardner is able to narrate and give well-wrought context to a complicated archeological corpus, which is able to unveil forms of indigenous agency against the grain of Roman and British coloniality, this bringing into dialogue two manifestations of post-colonial realities, temporally and geographically bound. The conceit of the article looks towards globalization considering how a body of material artifacts can produce a story of worldly production and consumption, yet in order to do this first, the issue of colonial, and post-colonial, milieus must be attended to. (ALR, 2022)

Hartmann, Andreas. “Between Greece and Rome: Forging a Primordial Identity for an Imperial Aristocracy” in Imperial Identities in the Roman World, eds. Wouter Vanacker, Arjan Zuiderhoek. Routledge, 16-35. 2016.

In this chapter, Andreas Hartmann explains how their admiration of Greek antiquity prompted elite Romans to forge a special genealogical relationship between themselves, their city, and heroic Greece. He argues that two components contributed to this “allowed” Greek identity in Rome: “religion and the involvement of the imperial aristocracy into public cults.” As he traces the evolution of foundational legends such as Evander and Hercules at the art maxima and the Trojan connection to Aneas at Lavinium, Hartmann demonstrates that this Roman-defined Greek history in imperial Rome created a common legend for the aristocracy. In this descent narrative, elite Romans did not just inherit an illustrious culture—they improved upon it. Additionally, Hartmann specified that this fictive family tree only served to connect Roman aristocrats to the ancient Greeks they admired. Contemporary Greeks, such as those resident in Alexandria, could claim no kinship. (EC, 2024)

Kasimis, Demetra. The Perpetual Immigrant and the Limits of Athenian Democracy. Cambridge University Press, 2018.

The story of Athenian democracy is inextricably bound to the story of Athenian citizenship which takes its shape in large part with the construction of a metic class, among other immigrants, in Attica’s sphere. The three texts which most form the contours of Kasimis’ argument —Euripides’ Ion, Plato’s Republic, and Demosthenes’ Against Euboulides— are each closely read with the same broad ethical treatment, one which looks beyond the contemporaneous reception of these works to instead focalize the possibilities their renewed interpretation may have for a retrospective construction of Athenian citizenry. Kasimis uses novel theoretical frames of considering the metic body and the Athenian body in the dynamic space which is the city alongside one another. This movement is especially well-crafted in her discussion of the non-citizen “passing” as otherwise in the case of Demonsthenes 57, which leads into her concluding remarks: that the blood-politics of Athenian democracy have the potential, and perhaps even injunction, to inform us on our own democracies, equally disturbed by its negotiations of citizen and outsider. (ALR, 2022)

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Kennedy, Rebecca Futo. Immigrant Women in Athens: Gender, Ethnicity, and Citizenship in the Classical City. Routledge Press, 2014.

Kennedy seeks to redefine the experience of metic, or foreign-born, women in classical Athens by closely examining the laws and practices instituted to either prevent or aid in their assimilation into Athenian society. In particular, Kennedy discusses the implications of the 451 BCE Periklean Citizenship Law on the experiences of metic women in Athens, exploring how the law affected their ability to intermarry, bear legitimate children, and engage meaningfully with Athenian society. Kennedy demonstrates that a metic woman’s ability to claim Athenian citizenship fluctuated with the stability of the state and could expand or contract accordingly. By tracking the evolution of the Citizenship Law, from its conception through several of its adaptations, Kennedy successfully explicates social statuses that could be achieved by immigrant women in Athens. This text is useful for those who are interested in the intersection of gender, class, and ethnic identities in ancient Greece. (SD, 2021)

Lemnos, Rennan. "Can We Decolonize the Ancient Past? Bridging Postcolonial and Decolonial Theory in Sudanese and Nubian Archaeology." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 33 (1): 19-37, 2023.

Synthesizing decolonial and postcolonial approaches, Rennan Lemos demonstrates how a decolonized theoretical approach in archaeology would look in a Nubian context. Working with Gayatri Spivak’s subaltern studies and Walter Mignolo’s concept of “delinking,” the author discusses the subaltern that formed in the process of Egyptian colonization. Traditionally, scholars studying Nubian archaeology have highlighted Egyptian imperial power. In doing so, they maintain a center-periphery style of analysis that prioritizes the explication of colonial power. Lemos argues for the necessity of creating a dialogue around Nubian agency and resistance that emphasizes bottom-up narratives. He suggests that the maintenance of Nubian cookware in Egyptian colonial towns and of Nubian elements in tombs situated outside the physically demarcated boundaries of colonial towns highlight instances in which Nubians chose to actively curate their traditional culture at a time when Egyptian-style material culture was ubiquitous. He also discusses the agency of Nubians in altering imported funerary statuettes to conform to local expectations. Similar evidence, he states, has long been neglected despite its abundance. The nexus between postcolonial and decolonial therefore illuminates complex ethnic relationships under Egyptian colonial rule. Lemos concludes with a call for the emergence of narratives of reparation that would create a more active dialogue on delinking and enhance accountability, thereby transforming theory into tangible action. (CG, 2024)

Matić, Uroš. “Was There Ever a “Minoan” Princess on the Egyptian Court?” in A History of Research Into Ancient Egyptian Culture in Southeast Europe, ed, Mladen Tomorad, Archaeopress, 145–156, 2015.

After Minoan-style frescoes were found decorating an Eighteenth Dynasty palace at the site of Tell el-Dab’a, many scholars, including Manfred Bietak, who discovered the frescos, hypothesized that the paintings had been commissioned to celebrate the marriage of a Minoan princess to the Egyptian pharaoh. Uroš Matić takes issue with this interpretation on the grounds that the frescoes may have been commissioned for internal reasons. He argues that the frescoes express Egyptian ideas about kingship, many of which were common throughout the Mediterranean, and that the Minoan style of the frescoes does not definitely prove a Minoan inspiration or even completion by Minoan craftsmen. Another scholar, Peter Warren, corroborates this view and suggests that Egyptian artists were familiar with and may have used a wide range of styles in order to visually represent Egyptian ideology. Furthermore, Matić argues that even if a Minoan princess were present at the Egyptian court, severe limits would be imposed on the expression of her foreign identity due to strict rules about decorum. For example, despite the foreign origin of three other wives of Thutmose III, they were buried in an Egyptian style. Given the restrictions that the princess would face on expressing her Minoan identity, labeling her as solely as “Minoan” would be inaccurate to her lived experience. Matić utilizes this case study to make the point that the presence of material in the style of a given ethnic group needn’t necessitate a search for resident foreigners. (AW, 2023)

Nucci, Matteo. "In Life as in Mythology, Greece is a Place of Frustrated Migrations: On Odysseus, the Greco-Turkish War, and the Plight of Modern Refugees." Literary Hub, August 24, 2020.

Matteo Nucci connects myth to reality in this essay by conceptually linking the migration stories of ancient Greece’s most famous heroes to the current challenges facing thousands of Syrians, Afghans, Kurds, and Iraqis who have in recent years found themselves on the shores of Greece looking for safe haven. Contesting the efforts of some Balkan states to block the passage of these migrants through Europe, despite EU regulations, Nucci urges Greeks to look back to two defining eras of Greek history. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922, many thousands of Greek Turks were forced to flee from their homes and seek refuge in Greece. So too, after the end of the Trojan war, in the Age of Heroes, Odysseus roamed the Mediterranean for ten years, often arriving in foreign shores unkempt, homeless, and at the mercy of strangers. Moreover, in Homer’s own age, Greek migrants traveled to southern Italy and many other places in the Mediterranean looking for new lives. By drawing attention to mythic and historical narratives, Nucci emphasizes how the Greeks’ own history of migration should equip them with empathy for the plight of modern refugees. (TNK, 2023)

Southwood, Katherine. “‘And They Could Not Understand Jewish Speech’: Language, Ethnicity, and Nehemiah's Intermarriage Crisis,” Journal of Theological Studies 62 (1): 1–19, 2011.

This text looks at the intermarriage ‘crises’ written about in the ancient Jewish books of Ezra and Nehemiah regarding ethnic identity and the importance or lack thereof of language in the context of Jewish identity. Southwood explores the idea of language as a part of ethnicity in many different ways including as a tool for boundary maintenance, part of political identity, and as a symbol. Grounding the text on issues of intermarriage allows language to be seen as a factor that threatens ethnic boundaries, seeing as they can be so easily threatened by bilingualism. Although Southwood does not provide much background or contexts for Ezra and Nehemiah’s literature, this text is useful in the theoretical sense for looking at strategies of group preservation from authorities in the ancient world as well as exploring ideas that transcend specific circumstances such as intermarriage. (AP, 2021)
 

While the field of reception captures, at its best, the mobility and meaning of works of literature, art, and culture, in the case of Classics form a Greco-Roman center to a non-Greco-Roman periphery, there are two more common typologies these receptions fall into: Classicisms and Orientalisms. Classicisms, which might be broadly conceived of as the attempt to cohere a work to an ideal of Greco-Roman antiquity in its ethical and aesthetic sensibility, and Orientalisms, which might be conceived as an effort to adhere a work to a barbarized and otherized ideal of “the east” in its ethical and aesthetic sensibility, both these modalities must be critically and dynamically understood in relation to each other. The following works pick out a selection of Classicisms and Orientalisms, and otherwise provide theoretical avenues for their grasping.
 

Green, Toby. “Beyond Culture Wars: Reconnecting African and Jewish Diasporas in the Past and the Present,” in African Athena: New Agendas, eds. Gurminder K. Bhambra et al, Oxford University Press, 138–155, 2011.

Green states that Bernal’s intentions in Black Athena to bring Jewish and African histories closer together – through positing an Afro-Asiaticism that underlies western civilization – ultimately fails. Using a framework of hybridity, however, Green offers a reading of Bernal that generates commonality between Jewish and African communities rather than discord. More than anything, Green is writing a piece of reception on one aspect of Bernal’s far stretching argument, namely that the unyielding divisions between Jewish and African communities can be traced through certain historical arcs to the Atlantic Slave Trade. (ALR, 2020)

Hamer, Mary. “Queen of Denial.” Transition 72: 80–92, 1996.

Cleopatra VII is presented in duality; she is either a ruler or a homewrecker, a historical figure or a cinematic sensation, and, most recently, a Black woman or a white woman. Examining years of fierce historical debate, Mary Hamer questions the obsession with Cleopatra’s race (for an example of this see the Daily News article that the image is drawn from). She aims not to draw a definitive statement about her race, which many scholars have done in the past, but to instead explore the reasons why many are so concerned about assigning racial identity to Cleopatra in the first place, and what that fervent interest might say about racism in modern society and in ancient studies. In Hamer’s own words, “the demands of the movement have always determined Cleopatra’s image.” This article is an invaluable source for anyone interested in learning more about a ruler whose name has not only become commonplace in Western society but has also been utilized as an “argument… carried out among white people and the intellectuals who” have historically set “the terms of discussion.” (RT, 2021)

Malamud, Margaret and Malamud, Martha. “The Petrification of Cleopatra in Nineteenth Century Art,” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics 28 (1): 31–51, 2020.

Classicists Margaret Malamud and Martha Malamud present a fascinating case study of two nineteenth century renditions of Cleopatra: one by William Wetmore Story, a white sculptor, and another by Edmonia Lewis, a Native American and African American sculptor. Story made the deliberate choice to give “African features” to his Cleopatra (1860), a drastic deviation “from classicizing portrayals of the queen” (it is important to note that this was received as an artistic choice and not as a statement of racial identity). On the other hand, Lewis chose to portray Cleopatra as white in The Death of Cleopatra (1876). This poignant article examines Lewis’s choice, which was perhaps established by her “encounters with white male artistic and literary fantasies of Cleopatra and her legendary sexual allure…” along with her “awareness of contemporary racist associations with excessive Black female sexuality.” With explorations of the ways racism functions even within Black representation, this is a relevant read for those who wish to learn more about the talented artist Edmonia Lewis and about race through artistic reception. (RT, 2021)

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Moyer, Ian, Adam Lecznar, and Heidi Morse, eds. Classicisms in the Black Atlantic. Oxford University Press, 2020.

The Black Atlantic is a region marked out for its antiquity and for its trauma. Millions were dragged through its waters. These individuals would lose their families, homes, and freedoms only to become the foundation of the New World and all that would be built upon it. Classicisms in the Black Atlantic receives and responds to various traditions – literary, intellectual, philosophical – that emerged from the region, and it considers these in light of the Classical canon. (ALR, 2020)

Orrells, Daniel. "Greek Love, Orientalism and Race: Intersections in Classical Reception," The Cambridge Classical Journal 58: 194–230, 2012.

Victorian-era British scholars were forced to grapple with pederasty in ancient Greece and the moral dilemmas brought about by increasing contact with the “savage” and “sexually deviant” Orient due to British expansionism. The British blamed the Greeks’ pederastic behavior on Phoenician encounters in Crete (i.e., on non-white, non-European influence). This fed the “worrying prospect of ‘going native’” during British expeditions into Africa and Asia." Just as the British could colonize the East with military might and exploitation, the British could be reverse-colonized by the East with moral depravity, impure sexuality, and effeminacy. Like their supposed racial ancestors, the Greeks, the British could suffer a “regression back into the Orient,” blurring the comfortably distinct racial lines between the East and the West. This line of reasoning also forced the British to reconsider the merits of a Classical education. Did Classical literature “civilize” or did it allow for the romanization of its homoerotic, “uncivilizing” undertones? And more troublingly, were the Greeks secretly “savage”? And how much of that “savagery” did the British inherit?  (HH, 2021)

Said, Edward. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1979.

As ubiquitous a text as it may be, Said's Orientalism is worth revisiting, specifically as a work of Classical reception. Though his main interest is with the colonial movements which follow the Napoleonic Wars, Said, as an intellectual historian, places the foundational production of orientalism within the years following the Greco-Persian Wars. Further, Said puts an important tension on the dichotomies of East versus West, undoings which serve any project of ethnic and racial examination and certainly those of antiquity. Finally, Said's seminal text is extraordinarily useful for its references and bibliography, as he culls together sources, historical moments, and artistic productions that are each worthy of exploration. 

• For more information on Said's relevance within the field of Classics, consult Phiroze Vasunia's article "Hellenism and Empire: Reading Edward Said".

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Sharpe, Kenan Behzat. “Hellenism without Greeks: The Use (and Abuse) of Classical Antiquity in Turkish Nationalist Literature.” Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 5 (1): 169–190, 2018. 

The Turkish nationalism that arose alongside Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who is considered the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, deliberately set itself apart from material and cultural markers of the deteriorated Ottoman Empire, instead focusing on emphasizing Turkish connections to ancient civilizations. In this article, Dr. Kenan Sharpe delves into the ways that two Turkish literary movements, New Hellenism and Blue Anatolia, sought to “establish a national mythology based in geography,” evoking the ancient histories of Anatolian civilizations such as the Hittites, Assyrians, and Trojans, which shared similar geographical spaces with Turkey. Dr. Sharpe argues that these literary movements also served as a ploy to incorporate Turkey into a broader Western European tradition based on classical heritage, and in doing so attempt to “challenge their neighbor Greece’s claim” to Hellenic civilization. This article is a fascinating example of the ways modern nations utilize ancient ethnic and cultural heritage (whether real or perceived) for both intranational and international relations and prestige. (RT 2021)

Sommer, Michael. “Through the Looking Glass – Zenobia and ‘Orientalism’”, in Reinventing ‘The Invention of Tradition’?: Indigenous Pasts and the Roman Present. Morphomata 32: 113–125, 2015.

In this special edition of Morphomata, which considers the engagement between Roman traditions of reception and the indigenous cultures they receive, Sommer picks up the confounding character of Zenobia, the ruler of Palmyra, in modern day Syria, during the 3rd century AD. Sommer picks up, and reads both in concord and discord, the various hagiographies which attend the different cultural facets of Zenobia, a warrior in the Persian tradition and a rebellion leader in the Roman. The piece plays out the alternate political realities encapsulated in the variant narratives, whose disparity Sommer places in the tension between a Roman center and the tribes which comprised its eastern frontier. Thus, the westernized Zenobia becomes an emblem of the impossibility of reconciling “west” and “east”. Through a thorough examination of Zenobia’s hagiographical, mythological, and historical capture, Sommer is able to mediate on the logics and motivations of Roman Orientalism, and beyond this to bind one character to a larger movement to otherize, and racialize, the leader of a neighboring empire. (ALR, 2022)

Vasunia, Phiroze. The Classics and Colonial India. Oxford University Press, 2013. 

The Classics in Colonial India were received first by the British colonizers, who were interested in conceptualizing their new domain and the people indigenous to it through the frames of the history and myth that appeared to support or motivate their imperial ideology. Shortly thereafter, however, it would be the colonized Indians who used Classics both to conceptualize the conditions and mechanisms of their colonization and to imagine a future that lay beyond it. These various receptions are central to Vasunia’s project, which considers representations of figures as central as Alexander (Sikhander) the Great and Gandhi. Vasunia’s use of both English and Indian archives, as well as his own familiarity with vernacular Indian traditions allows him access to intellectual traditions and sources not previously considered in the realm of Classics. (ALR, 2020)

Winterer, Caroline. “Lost City: Ancient Carthage and the Science of Politics in Revolutionary America. The William and Mary Quarterly 67 (1): 3–30, 2010.

In this article Caroline Winterer highlights the surprising fact that American revolutionaries drew inspiration from ancient Carthage, as they looked to the past to help articulate a new self-conception. Carthage, a dominant North African city that rivaled Rome up until the last Punic War, interested them particularly because of its success as a commercial power that also embodied a mixture of aristocratic and democratic ideals: electing, as they did, wealthy magistrates and governing also with the help of a senate and people’s assembly. Unlike Rome, which was conceptualized as a militaristic precursor to Britain, Carthage constituted a successful mercantile republic. According to Winterer, “Carthage gave the modern commercializing spirit a respectable ancient Mediterranean pedigree, suggesting that trade, republicanism, and imperialism were not incompatible but could be harmoniously blended.” These Americans, who were in a critical moment of independence and nation forming, began to see Carthage as a model city and Carthaginians as fitting ancestors for a modern America. (TNK, 2023)
 

The many migrations and conquests that took place in antiquity ensured that some people found themselves under the rule of others. Certain colonies were enmeshed in long-lasting relationships with the governments that established them. More often colonists found themselves under the rule of foreigners or else gained their independence and expanded their own sphere of influence. Ambitious polities like Athens and Rome set up empires that administered different polities according to different logics related to the terrain, importance of the desired resources, and the receptiveness of the local population. Meanwhile, those who did not wish to be ruled devised strategies to rebel, subvert imperial authorities, and/or maximize their own positions. Ironically, the study of classical antiquity has informed imperialists in much more modern times and has been utilized in colonial contexts for racial projects.

Ahmed, Siraj. Archaeology of Babel: The Colonial Foundations of the Humanities. Stanford University Press, 2017.

The Archaeology of Babel importantly takes its project from a growing call by prominent philologists, including Sheldon Pollock and Benjamin Elman who appear later in this section, among others, to return to and reinvest in the work of comparative philology. Ahmed, through exploring the oeuvre of Sir William Jones, the British Classicist who “developed” the Indo-European Theory while an officer in Bengal, India, explains how the field of philology has always been entwined with the colonization of India. Moving away from Jones, Ahmed explores various discourses of Hindu law, culture, and religion which the movement of European philology marks out as classical, and otherwise important for India, thereby falsely constructing an antiquity to which people later turn as their own. Read narratively, the Archaeology of Babel warns against the use of methods which were originally tools of empire and racial oppression, all the while exploring a fascinating eon of intellectual history which continues to impact and hold sway over the way Classical languages are processed today. (ALR, 2022)

Bartsch, Shadi. “Global Classics.” TAPA 152 (1): 33–42, 2022.

Looking towards the future of a Classics post-COVID, post-Zoom, post-virtuality, Bartsch considers what the project of globalism may look like in a field which is on the precipice of tremendous reorganization. The piece gives a decent overview of various projects Classics has already undertaken in attempt to maintain itself in a globalized world, but more crucially she weighs contemporaneous efforts at institutions abroad and other disciplines, namely Sinology, when considering what this perspective entails pedagogically and epistemically. Bartsch is keenly aware of the political, thereby nationalistic, bent wrapped up in China’s use of Greek history, say, but concludes that understanding these points of global reception are critical to any meaningful understanding to the Classical canon as it is used today, and through this, to learn something themselves about the West. (ALR, 2022)

Boyes, P. “Negotiating Imperialism and Resistance in Late Bronze Age Ugarit: The Rise of Alphabetic Cuneiform.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 29 (2): 185–199, 2018.

Boyes applies a post-colonial framework to interpret Ugarit’s development of a distinctively local alphabetic cuneiform script during the Late Bronze Age. He views this innovation as a subversive act of resistance to the imperial great powers of the day, all which conducted diplomacy in a nonlocal language, written in a complex and famously difficult script. Ugarit’s relationship with its Hittite overlord appears to have grown increasingly fraught in the Late Bronze Age. Although the Hittites afforded more administrative liberties to Ugarit than it did to comparable polities—and Ugarit responded by contributing to the imperial economy and giving lip-service to loyalty—a growing discontent is evident in Ugaritic archives. The Hittites demanded excessive tribute and that the Ugaritic king pay homage in person. They even interfered in the city’s internal politics. In response, the Ugaritic kings began to practice a carefully calibrated insubordination. They engaged in strategic noncompliance, occasionally allowed a tone of disrespect to permeate their correspondence, and initiated a potentially treasonous relationship with Egypt. The development of a local alphabetic script that emphasized Ugarit’s status as a polity with a unique and flourishing local culture, according to Boyes, constituted another act of potentially deniable resistance in the thirteenth century. While other polities, such as Phoenician Byblos, would later also adopt a vernacular alphabetic script to express their distinctive civic identity, Ugarit did so while it was still the vassal of a powerful empire—a move as bold as it was innovative! (CR, 2023)

Elman, Benjamin and Pollock, Sheldon eds. What China and India Once Were: The Pasts That May Shape the Global Future. Columbia University Press, 2018.

An important work in the movement towards a global antiquity, the series of essays in this collection cast aside any conscriptions of European modernity to instead consider India and China, Indology and Sinology, in their own comparative formation. The collection picks up some of the more usual generic culprits in the field of pre-modernity, including kingship, historiography, religion, and science, but in its explicit avoidance of a European comperanda, underscores a cultural production which escapes the trappings of certain colonial logics. Thus, the work of racing Indian and Chinese antiquity need not the formation of “whiteness” to consider their relation to one another, and the oppressive, hegemonic tendencies of empire find their own enaction outside of constructions of white supremacy. The afterword, “The Act of Comparing (Both Sides, Now)”, by Haun Saussy and Dipesh Chakrabarty concludes the collection on an important plea to not cede the grounds of comparison, but rather to invest in methods of comparison which reject colonial logics in attempt to excavate the native beings originally shrouded by those same methodologies. (ALR, 2022)

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Trautmann, Thomas. Aryans and British India. University of California Press, 1997.

Aryanism, the product of William Jones and other scholars involved in the academic imbibing of Proto-Indo-European, is one of the most salient and robust forms of race science, and traces its origins clearly to the efforts of colonial philology in British India. In this book, Trautmann considers the formation of Aryanism, one which sought to bind the antiquities of India and Greco-Roman world and cohere them to the same lineage, suggest that a true India, one raced more similarly to its western counterpart lurked underneath the observed one, simply waiting its colonial rescue. Trautmann’s work implicates Classics in the production of another peoples’ racial and ethnic formation, not only through the projects of philology, but also its attendant partners in theology, astronomy, ethnology, and cultural studies. This is a wonderful source in understanding how race can be retroactively constructed and reimposed upon the people of antiquity in effort to understand their relation to one another. (ALR, 2022)

Yang, Shao-yun. The Way of the Barbarians: Redrawing Ethnic Boundaries in Tang and Song China. University of Washington Press, 2019.

Like the collection by Elman and Pollock above which does not address western antiquity, while still providing a valuable model for its inquiry, Yang’s The Way of the Barbarians applies the figural barbarian to the rhetorical output of Tang and Song dynasty China. The barbarian, here, stands in for orthodoxic Chinese conduct as adjudicated through a series of early modern political and philosophical discourses, so while it does not actually handle the literal foreigner, it does examine the cultural and textual impact of the figurative one. It is an important epistemic production as to consider the foreign not as an actual raced body but as a series of characteristics which diverge from an unstated normativism enables a highly theoretical and critically underexamined kind of ethnic panic: the non-existent. (ALR, 2022)
 

It has been well posited by scholars of race and critical theory that the modern formation of race is intrinsically bound to the Atlantic Slave Trade and the social and economic world orders created in its wake. Mass enslavement and incarceration, thus, are often the first access point to race, racism, and racialization for individuals in the United States. For the past decade, scholars of antiquity have been increasingly devoted themselves towards the understanding of these dynamics in the ancient world, not in analogous function with the Atlantic Slave Trade, but in its own ontological presentation. Of course, while slavery in antiquity was not bound to race, as it was in the 15th century AD, still the work of understanding how groups of people are stripped of rights and made into property enables a necessary vantage into alternate frames for processing violent oppression and selective discrimination. The following sources reflect some parts of the growing movement to excavate the life of the enslaved, imprisoned, and otherwise disenfranchised in antiquity.

Camacho, Daniel José. “Saint Augustine’s Slave Play” in The Point, 2022.

Some of the sources that can most facilitate a student’s engagement with race in antiquity are tucked away not in academic journals , but in the many literary journals and magazines that collapse the work of personal narrative and experience into the folds of research-based work, among them, n+1, The Drift, and The Point.  Camacho’s piece in the aforementioned magazine is demonstrative of just this. In it, Camacho bricolages a deeply historical yet generative, and even speculative, portrayal of Saint Augustine, which bounce between his own readings of the Saint, an examination of the material and social conditions of Roman slaves, and a recasting of Jeremy O. Harris’ Slave Play. The work achieves a total re-understanding of who Saint Augustine could be, situated outside of a discussion of who he was. While the work is endlessly pithy and quotable, among the gems I have to include: “It’s crucial to understand that although modern notions of race didn’t exist in Augustine’s time, contemporary readings of Augustine aren’t racially innocent. He’s neither the white figure some have imagined nor the multicultural hero I longed for”.

Forsdyke, Sara. Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021.

Forsdyke’s is among the few monographs dedicated in its entirety to the study of slavery in ancient Greece. Grounding herself in effort to understand and reflect the humanity of the enslaved, Forsdyke attempts to convey a real sense of the day-to-day lived experiences of a slave within the Greek cities, with chapter two’s discussion of the actual migration from a displaced homeland to a foreign Hellenic city of particular interest to readers of this bibliography. While Forsdyke stresses the non-chromaticism of slavery in ancient Greece, and indeed thoroughly investigates the “passing” of the enslaved given the inability to physically discern one’s class status, her inclination to consider the slave in antiquity as a class of humans possessed, dispossessed, and used for the growth of empire aids in understanding various modalities of oppression in the ancient world. The conclusion of the work returns to modernity and dwells on the import of studying slaves in ancient Greece for understanding the racist underpinnings of our democracy and democratic functionalities today, importantly binding the two forms of examination. (ALR, 2022)
 

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Kamen, Deborah. “Sale for the Purpose of Freedom: Slave-prostitutes and Manumission in Ancient Greece,” The Classical Journal 109 (3): 281–307, 2014.

In this insightful look into the slave society of ancient Greece, Deborah Kamen explores the practice of manumission through ‘fictive sales,” both secular and sacral. While enslaved people, who were most often of foreign heritage, could potentially buy their own freedom, they often lacked the capacity to do so because anything in their possession, money included, legally belonged to their masters. Thus, the practice of fictive sales emerged, in which a third party “purchased” the slave but in doing so actually paid for their freedom. In sacral fictive sales, enslaved people would entrust a god with their money, allowing the deity to pay for their sale with the understanding that the deity would not exercise ownership over them. In secular fictive sales, where an individual purchased the enslaved person’s freedom, many had to enter prostitution contracts to reimburse the costs of the fictive sale. What Kamen illuminates here are the loopholes in ancient Greece that kept manumission rare and the majority of freed slaves in their servile status. (TNK 2023)

Redfern, Rebecca C. “Blind to Chains? The Potential of Bioarchaeology for Identifying the Enslaved of Roman Britain.” Britannia vol. 49, 251–82, 2018.

Bioarchaeology, a subsect of the latter named discipline which uses osteology, or the study of bones, alongside the examination of other biological and organic compounds, has been an increasingly popular methodology to engage with the remains of antiquity. In this paper, Redfern examines the utility of the method specifically in the study of Roman Britain in effort to construct “osteobiographies”, narratives based on physiological distress and wear, of those who were enslaved by the Empire. The investigation is able to make several meaningful suggestions as to how slaves were moved across the region and how their bodies fared in the production of labor they were forced into doing. Moreover, Redfern is able to suggest that bones reflecting “capture” which is often marked out as a substantial entrance into slavery in antiquity, pales in comparison to bones reflecting being born into enslavement, lending insight into the processes of being and living as a slave. Redfern’s discussion of health and wellness of slaves, specifically in relation to diseases of the time, is especially interesting and brings an important connection to the more modern dynamics and legacies of slavery. The technological advancements described, and in part utilized, through this piece help acquaint the reader with a new set of tools which may elucidate certain critical patterns of ethnic and racial construction in antiquity. (ALR, 2022)
 

The study of ethnicity has been a fashionable investigation far longer than race in Classical and ancient studies. This is in a large part because it is obvious that ancient peoples had strong notions of ethnicity, marking themselves out in clusters conjoined by common descent, linguistic affiliation, religion, and location. That being said, the longevity of the project of ethnic explication does not preclude the growth in the area which is ever-(re)forming in response to new discoveries. The following sources are rooted in various aspects of ethnic formation, and cover ethnic groups from many parts of the ancient world. The featured work of Jonathan Hall gives a well-wrought construction of ethnicity and is a good place to begin.
 

Allen-Hornblower, Emily. “Emotion and Ethnicity in Herodotus’ Histories,” in Ethnicity and Identity in Herodotus, ed. T. Figueira and C. Soares,Routledge Press, 84–105, 2020.

Allen-Hornblower acknowledges that the veracity of Herodotus’ accounts leaves much to be desired; however, she argues in this piece that while the factual reliability of Histories remains questionable, the way in which Herodotus depicts displays of emotion (whether real or imagined) reveals an under-explored methodology of discussing how ancient peoples viewed other ethnic groups. Importantly, emotional responses (and how they are perceived by others) betray a society’s values and form how they interact with and understand the actions of other groups. Perceived emotional responses (whether genuine or not) to events that befall another group, for example, warfare or famine, can indicate how two separate entities perceived their relation to one another, both along ethnic and political bounds. Allen-Hornblower analyzes how the emotions of fear, anger, pity, and grief are depicted in Histories, offering valuable insight as to how emotion can act as a gateway between ethnic groups. (SD, 2021)

Bryce, Trevor R. “Hittites and Anatolian Ethnic Diversity.” In A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean, ed. Jeremy McInerney, Wiley, 127–141, 2014.

In this article, Bryce analyzes the archaeological evidence for ethnic diversity within the Hittite Kingdom during the Late Bronze Age. However, rather than looking just at material culture, he examines the archaeological historical records. He begins with a brief history of the Hattian (indigenous pre-Hittite inhabitants of the region), followed by a summary of the evidence for the presence of “three Indo-European-speaking population groups … 1) a group speaking a language called Palaic (2) A group called the Luwians … (3) A group called the speakers of the Nesite language. By modern convention, we call this language ‘Hittite.’” From those who spoke Nesite came the first Hittite dynasty. Despite Indo-European aristocratic dominance, Bryce argues that elements of Hattian culture remained, which is evident in Hittite archives. Eventually, however, Bryce argues that loyalty to land trumped loyalty to ethnicity; “The Hittites never used a specific ethnic term to identify themselves. They simply referred to themselves as the people of the Land of Hatti. That is, they identified themselves by reference to the region in which they lived, adopting a name that probably went back long before written records began.” Later on, the empire’s increasing multiculturalism came from people kidnapped and brought back to the city after a conquest. According to King Mursili II’s records, “The numbers transported after each campaign ranged from the hundreds to the thousands—and indeed sometimes to the tens of thousands.” According to Bryce, given that they were not mentioned in the Hittite Laws, “these persons seem to have been fairly rapidly integrated into their new homeland, and soon became legally indistinguishable from its other inhabitants. All were now Hittites—the people who dwelt within the Land of Hatti.'' (IW, 2023)

Cooper, Julien. “Between the Nile and the Red Sea: Medjay Desert Polities in the Third to First Millennium BCE.” Old World: Journal of Ancient Africa and Eurasia : 1-22, 2021.

Understanding the meanings and boundaries of ethnonyms in the present is challenging enough but seeking to do so in the deep past adds an extra layer of difficulty. According to Julien Cooper, the term Medjay meant different things over the course of the millennium and a half that it is attested in pharaonic Egypt. Medjay were taken to designate a) an indigenous population of pastoralists who resided in the desert east of the Nile Valley or b) a diasporic population living “within and around the Egyptian and Sudanese Nile, slowly being culturally divorced from their desert homeland.” Later, the term appears to have become primarily occupational (designating members of the police force). Cooper thus argues that Medjay was an umbrella term employed for extended families or tribes that came together or fragmented as the situation warranted. Some of these groups are known to have spoken an ancestral form of Beju and appear to have been matrilineal. Medjay tribes and their structurally similar successors often possessed elite families and sometimes worked with the Egyptians in scouting, securing desert missions, transporting aromatics, or the like. Other times they organized raids or rebellions to reassert or augment their power with respect to Nilotic governments. Erasure of an ethnonym such as Medjay, then, does not necessarily mean the erasure of lifeways or lineages. Medjay cultural patterns persisted in the Eastern Desert of Egypt and Sudan far longer than any specific nomenclature ever has. (EB, 2024)

Dench, Emma. Romulus' Asylum: Roman Identities from the Age of Alexander to the Age of Hadrian. Oxford University Press, 2005.

The dawn of the Roman Empire brought about massive shifts in the ethnic composition of the ancient Mediterranean. With its expansion over vast tracts of the Near East, North Africa, and Europe, the formulation of a coherent “Roman” identity was a necessary, critical, and ever-tenuous project. Regulating concepts of identity in Rome, Dench argues, involved a strict and decisive imperial effort that drastically impacted epistemologies of self, empire, and citizenship. In tracing the foundation mythology of Romulus and Remus through its living history, Dench is able to analyze changing judicial, mythological, imperial, and familial notions of belonging to Rome, lending her project an impressive scope. Among the most important of Dench’s interventions is her suggestion that Roman identity was “virtual” (i.e. geographically diffuse and shifting) – a helpful framework for approaching various instances of ethnic formation in the ancient world. (ALR, 2020)

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Feuer, Bryan. “Being Mycenaean: A View from the Periphery.” American Journal of Archaeology 115 (4): 507–36. 2011.

As Bryan Feuer states, “ethnicity comprises social and psychological phenomena associated with a culturally constructed group identity.” This article traces the formation and re-enforcement of Mycenaean cultural and ethnic identity throughout the Late Bronze Age, asking who qualifies as a Mycenaean, who doesn’t, and why this delineation occurred. Feuer begins by explaining a debate within anthropological studies of ethnicity regarding the possibility of “objectively” defining ethnicity (as compared to recognizing ethnicity as a social construct that is subjectively perceived). In part, he draws conclusions about how the Mycenaeans viewed themselves based on ethnic diacritics, or points of difference between one’s own ethnicity and another. While acknowledging that many of these points of difference, such as language, religion, and aspects of material culture, are near impossible to connect to ethnicity in the archaeological record, Feuer nonetheless describes pieces of evidence that are considered distinctly “Mycenaean”: the megaron, burial customs (including specific grave goods, like weapons), a social structure centered around a wanax, and Mycenaean-style pottery. For instance, the development of shaft graves from early cist graves can help archaeologists track the trajectory of Mycenaean ethnogenesis. Importantly, Feuer notes that much of the designation of Mycenaean culture comes solely from the elites of society, and there is little to suggest whether craftsmen and farmers would have considered themselves Mycenaean in the same way. Feuer then turns his attention to the periphery of Mycenaean society to demonstrate the variance in when and how people outside of the Mycenaean core participated in or were integrated into Mycenaean culture and/or identity. He raises a final question at the end of the paper: was it possible to be “Mycenaeanized” without becoming Mycenaean? Though Feuer’s discussion of these issues raises more questions than it could hope it answer, his analysis intervenes in the study of ethnicity in the Mediterranean by destabilizing the connection between ethnicity and culture, refusing to accept ethnicity as objectively determined, and questioning the degree to which the identity of the elites represented the identity of the larger population.  (CC, 2023)

Figueira, Thomas. “Language as a Marker of Ethnicity in Herodotus and Contemporaries,” in  Ethnicity and Identity in Herodotus, ed. T. Figueira and C. Sogres, Routledge Press, 43-71, 2020.

Thomas Figueira engages in literary and historical analysis to argue that in ancient Greece ethnicity was primarily a linguistically defined phenomenon. Herodotus acknowledged how Greekness could be distinguished by sameness of blood, language, customs, and religion. While Jonathan Hall downplayed the role of language in Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity, Figueira maintains that just as whether one spoke Greek helped differentiate Greeks from Barbarians, Greek dialects acted as a primary vector of difference among Greeks. In his view, although “folkways and shared ritual activities were noteworthy, the single most important factor establishing proximity or distance in kinship was shared dialect and other common elements of speech, such as onomastics.” To lose one’s dialect and to assimilate to the language and culture of different group represented a fundamental rupture in one’s identity. Indeed, Figueira argues based on numerous ancient passages, it could be regarded as “a personal catastrophe.” (EC, 2024)

Garnsey, P. Food and Society in Classical Antiquity. Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Interrogating ideas of self-invention and demarcation, as well as religion, ethnicity, and social bonding, Peter Garnsey critically analyzes the relationships of societies in antiquity to food. He is particularly interested in the formulation of food taboos as a marker of group identity. Drawing examples from Greco-Roman, Jewish, and Christian practices, Garnsey argues that communities that institute restrictions and regulations regarding food do so not only as to establish and regulate religious sanctity and cleanliness but, perhaps more importantly, to separate and define themselves from “others.” Garnsey compares Greco-Roman societies, which had virtually no dietary taboos, save for a prohibition on cannibalism, to observant Jewish communities. The latter traditionally abide by kosher laws and thereby cultivate a self-definition that is in part gastrocultural. He concludes by examining the increased sacral self-regulation that occurred in early Christianity as a strategy for a quickly growing multiethnic set of communities to impose separations between themselves and their pagan counterparts. (TNK, 2023)

Gruen, Erich, “Did Ancient Identity Depend on Ethnicity? A Preliminary Probe.” Phoenix 67 (1/2): 1-22, 2013.

In this essay, Erich Gruen calls into question the common assumption that ethnicity significantly influenced the formation of ancient collective identities. It is worth mentioning that he takes “ethnicity” as a concept of shared lineage dependent upon descent, which thus renders it interchangeable with “race.” Gruen first points out that neither the Greeks nor the Romans seemed to assign much value to the idea of unadulterated ethnic identity. While the Greeks associated their origins with foreign peoples, the Romans considered themselves to be a mongrel nation, mythically tracing their origins back to not only Trojans but also Sabines and aborigines. Gruen further argues for ethnicity’s limited impact on collective identity by focusing on the Hebrews’ endogamy. Through an in-depth examination of the Hebrew Bible, Gruen suggests that the primary reason for the Hebrews’ practice of endogamy was to maintain their religious traditions rather than to uphold ethnic purity. Gruen goes on to argue that the formation of the self-versus-other dichotomy, which might have helped establish a distinctive collective identity, has little to do with ethnicity or race either. Although the Celts are much maligned by classical sources, textual evidence suggests that the Greeks did not consider their disparaged behaviors to signify a hereditary deficiency. Lastly, Gruen addresses the so-called “language of ethnicity” employed by the ancients, including ethnos, genos, etc. With abundant textual evidence, Gruen argues that these ancient terms carried more diverse meanings than we moderns usually think and that, indeed, in antiquity individuals concerned themselves far less with ethnic or racial “purity” than we tend to do. (XLS, 2024)

Haarmann, Harald. “Ethnicity and Language in the Ancient Mediterranean,” in A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean, ed. J. McInerney. John Wiley & Sons Publishers, 17-33, 2014.

Language functions as one of the most obvious signifiers group identity. For example, Athenians referred to ‘others’ as Barbarians based on their inability to speak Greek. Language is not, however, necessarily fundamental to a group’s identity. In “Ethnicity and Language in the Ancient Mediterranean,” Haarmann sees ethnic identities as dynamic – with languages and other salient markers changing naturally over time and through interaction with others. Migration and conquest often spread both culture and language, as countless studies of Indo-European population movements attest, but in such encounters cultural influence went both ways, resulting in transculturation. In the Roman Empire, as Haarmann notes, Latin changed significantly due to the linguistic assimilation of Etruscan words and nomenclature. (AP, 2021)

Hall, Jonathan. Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity. Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Hall’s Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity is an excellent introduction to various methodologies useful in approaching race and ethnicity in the Hellenistic world. The text’s primary utility is its inclusion of theoretical frames, with full definition relating the terms both to modern and ancient contexts. Hall views ethnicity in the ancient world as operating in an instrumental sense, which is to say that ancestral, mythological, and even genetic linkages are cultivated in a group’s pursuit of political and economic power. The instrumental view, and Hall’s definition of the ethnic group itself, is largely formed in chapter 2, “The nature and expression of ethnicity: an anthropological view.” Hall outlines his primary stakes in the argument, which he applies in later chapters to other areas – among them archaeology and linguistics. Moreover, Hall tests his own theories of race and ethnicity in antiquity alongside those of other scholars, so the text itself provides a decent intellectual history. Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity is a wonderful resource for anyone looking to find footing in the vast scope of ancient ethnic studies, and it leaves its reader with a robust vocabulary and theoretical foundation in approaching these arguments in primary sources. (ALR, 2020)

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Hill, Brian. “Protocols of Ethnic Specification in Herodotus,” in Ethnicity and Identity in Herodotus, ed. T. Figueira and C. Soares, Routledge Press, 72–83, 2020.

Herodotus’ Histories is well known among classical historians for its titillating, albeit at times inaccurate, accounts of ancient history. In his essay, Brian Hill explores Herodotus’ usage of the Greek word ethnos in his Histories. Hill extracts Herodotus’ definition of ethnos through close analysis of several short passages from the Histories, as he attempts to determine what constitutes an ethnic group from Herodotus’ perspective (as opposed to what constitutes a group that is merely a part of a larger ethnic entity, and as such is not designated by Herodotus to be a separate ethnos). In doing so, Hill offers readers a more nuanced understanding of the word ethnos as it is used in Herodotus’ accounts. This source is particularly useful for those who read Greek, as it explicates the complex connotations of ethnos in ancient Greek literature. (SD, 2021)

Ingram, Erin. “Tattooing and Scarification in Ancient Nubia: Teenage Rebellion or Cultural Norm?” in Beiträge zur Sudanforschung 12, 119–147, 2017.

The title of this chapter is a bit misleading, as Ingram does not discuss ‘teenage rebellion’ at all. Instead, she provides an overview of Nubian scarification and tattooing, explaining how they would have been done and the purposes they may have served. This is relevant to the concept of a Nubian ethnic identity both because these body modifications communicated important affiliations and cultural messages internally and because they influenced outgroup perceptions of Nubian identity. Egyptian literature and art include scarification as an important trait in identifying (or disguising oneself as) a Nubian. Additionally, because tattooing was practiced primarily women and because similar tattoos in Egypt are witnessed on priestesses and cultic dancers, Ingram suggests that the bodily modifications may have been undertaken as fertility magic. Scarification, however, is thought to have had a medicinal aspect to its use, which would explain why it is far more common (and unisex) than tattooing. (SJ-F, 2021)

López-Ruiz, Carolina. Phoenicians and the Making of the Mediterranean. Harvard University Press, 2021.

Among the codified ethnic groups whose names most define the fabric of antiquity’s cultural network, the Phoenicians remain relatively obscured. Despite the hoard of traces of their society across disparate religions, chronologies, and geographies, López-Ruiz’s is the first, and by this a landmark study, of the Phoenician people, focalizing itself in 8th and 7th centuries BC with an especially careful eye towards archaeological and epigraphical remnants. The work pushes against the implicit Hellenic-exceptionalism typically ascribed to the period, suggesting models of production and innovation, especially agricultural and horticultural, which find their bearings not with the Greeks, but with the people López-Ruiz sees as erased and archivally silenced by the wider tradition of reception. The book is not a seamless non-specialist read, given that the arguments which form the boundaries of the work are often left unspoken, but it is a substantial effort towards opening up the field of Phoenician Studies through an in-depth ethnographical approach. Of specific interest to a student of race and ethnicity in antiquity is “The Orientalizing Kit” which helps explore the orientalization of the Phoenician people against the grain of the westernization of the Greeks in the extant tradition. (ALR, 2022)

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Mynářová, Jana. "Liminal People(s) in the Late Bronze Age Levant? A New Light on Sherden (šerdanu)." Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History 9 (2): 285–304, 2022.

To what extent are scholars too quick to attribute ethnic identities to ancient groups? This is the question Jana Mynářová poses in this article. Much of the scholarship on the Sherden focuses on their participation, as one of a number of ethnic groups, in coordinated invasions of Egypt in the Late Bronze Age. Mynářová reorients our focus to their first attestations in the Amarna period in Egyptian and Hittite texts. In her investigation of the contemporary Apiru and Suteans—groups lacking toponymic identifiers when identified in the Amarna letters—Mynářová notes that these are not ethnonyms but designate an occupation or social class. She suggests that the word Sherden is an identifier of a foreign auxiliary troop as a whole or a singular member. She makes this argument by comparing the usage of Sherden and supposed cognates in letters from Rib-Hadda of Byblos, in Egyptian inscriptions, and in Hittite and Akkadian documents. The word for Sherden in Akkadian also means ‘help’ and ‘allyship’ and, in an adjectival form, it is used to describe troops. Mynářová thus argues that this word became integrated into the Egyptian language via the Levant. With this reinterpretation, the Sherden ethnic identity is entirely relative. Sherden troops could be any ethnic identity, just so long as they were of a different cultural heritage than the core of the army. (CG, 2020)

Siapkas, Johannes. “Ancient Ethnicity and Modern Identity.” In A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean, Jeremy McInerney (ed.), John Wiley and Sons, 66-81, 2014.

Race theories and the primordial perspective on ethnicity have significantly impacted Classical Studies. Primordialists emphasized the critical role of origins in defining ethnic groups and viewed ethnic identity as unchangeable. This stance is intricately linked to scientific racism, which posits a direct correlation between physical appearance and mental abilities. In contrast, the instrumentalist perspective that emerged in the 1960s presents ethnicity as fluid, being shaped by sociopolitical contexts. It aims to “establish the subjective self-ascriptive understandings of ethnic identities.” This approach productively highlights the malleability of ethnic identities, arguing that they are formed through the interactions between “Us” and “Other.” Beyond primordialism and instrumentalism, the field grapples with the entwined relationship between ethnicity and culture. These discussions extend into archaeology, which long adhered to the essentialist belief that material artifacts directly mirror the fixed traits of a group. These theories, now problematized by archaeologists, have been slow to influence Classical Studies. Johannes Siapkas ends his overview of the employment of ethnic studies in the field by recommending two courses of action for scholars of the ancient Mediterranean. First, they should employ interpretive models from more recent archaeological studies to better discern indicators of ethnic formation within material remains. Second, they should seek inspiration from the relational perspective on ethnogenesis and identity formation, typified by scholars like Irad Malkin and Bruno Latour. These approaches offer fruitful conceptual frameworks for understanding identity constructs. (XLS, 2024)

Thompson, Maggie, "Primitive or Ideal? Gender and Ethnocentrism in Roman Accounts of Germany," Studies in Mediterranean Antiquity and Classics 1 (1), 2006.

Building from Edith Hall’s theories in Inventing the Barbarian, Thompson examines two works by the Roman authors Julius Caesar and Tacitus that speak of the German ‘barbaric other.' Thompson argues that these texts are more representative of Roman self-perception and society than they are historical accounts of Roman Germania and its people. Julius Caesar’s work addresses the Roman aristocratic male and is composed of his own military accounts from the Gallic wars, supplemented by ethnographies. However, Thompson claims that Caesar’s purpose is to “construct an ethnocentric worldview that fits his colonist ambitions.” Here, the German barbarian ‘other’ serves as justification for imperialism. Meanwhile Tacitus’ work – written in the heat of the Roman imperium – has anti-imperialist undertones as it creates the character of the ‘noble savage.’ Thompson demonstrates that in tying the German political system to Republican Roman ideals, Tacitus can undermine Imperial Rome. Overall, Thompson’s work is important in both understanding how ancient authors can manipulate the ‘other’ or barbarian to suit their own political agenda within a text and also in how we ought to be wary of accepting ethnographies embedded in texts like these as representative of peripheral societies. (HC, 2021)

Vlassopoulos, Kostas, “Ethnicity and Greek History: Re-Examining Our Assumptions.” Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 58 (2): 1-13, 2015.

Racial justifications for Greek national unification were largely put aside by scholars after the defeat of Nazism. According to Kostas Vlassopoulos, however, works such as Jonathan Hall’s book Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity (1997) inadvertently risk restarting old conversations that retroject a supposed Greek shared identity into the deep past. In his critique of this important work, Vlassopoulos points out that Greek “ethnicity” and “nationality” are too easily conflated. Moreover, in creating check-list attributes for ethnicity and in privileging transregional identities such as Ionian, Dorian, and Aeolian over local identities (such as Corinthian or Theban), Hall misleadingly simplifies a complex topic. Hall argues that in the archaic period Hellenicity was primarily based on common descent, while in the classical period it became a cultural identity. According to Vlassopoulos, however, ethnic identity among the Greeks was ambivalent already in the Iron Age. At no time did any Greek attempt to write a common history of the Dorians, for example. Nor were there shrines that only admitted Dorians, whether the Dorians were located in Asia Minor or on mainland Greece. Such shrines were local in nature or Panhellenic but did not privilege one transregional “ethnic” group over another. “The absence of shared activities,” Vlassopoulos states, “is strongly linked with the absence of a shared territory and of a shared history.” Ethnic identities were thus always mutable and highly complex. At different periods, Greek-speaking people identified primarily with their city-states, with their regional allies, and/or with cultural traits mapped on to communal identities. (XLS, 2024)

Weilhartner, J. “The Interrelationship between Mycenaeans and Foreigners.” In Tierra, Territorio y Población en la Grecia Antigua, eds. M. Oller, J. Pàmias, and C. Varias, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 151–168, 2017.

Looking both at Linear B tablets at Pylos and Mycenaean imagery, Jörg Weilhartner explores how the Mycenaeans perceived, represented, and interacted with non-Mycenaeans. At Pylos, the scribes of the palatial administration registered individuals or groups by their name, occupation, title, and/or their local origin or ethnicity. Weilhartner notes in a tablet series that records female workers who were dependent personnel of the palace at Pylos that a number of female workers were identified by their geographic background rather than by their profession (e.g., ‘women from Zephyria/Halikarnassos,’ ‘women from Milet,’ ‘women from Lemnos,’ and ‘women from ‘Asia’/Lydia’). Weilhartner emphasizes that the statuses of the women as refugees, dependent workers, or enslaved are not known. Goddesses as well as women could be designated as foreign. The divine title po-ti-ni-ja (Potnia) a-si-wi-ja (the anthroponym for Asia/Lydia), he argues, is likely a syncretism between the main deity of Mycenaean palatial society and a foreign deity, probably introduced to Pylos from western Anatolia. Weilhartner concludes by noting that although Mycenaeans were quite familiar with foreigners, they almost never depicted them in art. Citing Hittite texts that mention the Ahhiyawa (Mycenaeans), he offers by way of explanation that the conflicts with foreigners that the Mycenaeans were involved in probably always took place outside the Greek mainland. As such Greek Mycenaeans did not have a pressing motive to create an artistic topos of battle with non-Mycenaeans. While foreigners were not represented in Aegean iconography, Linear B records prove that polytechnic and multicultural interaction was commonplace. (LW, 2023)

The identities of Greco-Roman personhood have been bound, strategically, to whiteness, citizenship, and masculinity. Parsing the construction of this personhood, at the intersection of privilege and power, requires first disaggregating the opposite of this – the feminized, queered, barbarian. This collapsing of identities, in turn, drafted and normalized forms of sexual violence which further gendered the barbarian and barbarized the feminine. The following sources bring to the forefront the processes and motivations behind sexing and gendering the barbarian as a tool of nation-state building and warfare. 
 

Bahrani, Zainab, “Hellenization of Ishtar: Nudity, Fetishism, and the Production of Cultural Differentiation in Ancient Art,” Oxford Art Journal 19 (2): 3–16, 1996.

In this article, Zainab Bahrani explores the racialized reception of cultural differences in the Hellenistic world. She suggests that gender, sexuality, and artistic representations of the feminine body served as modes of differentiation between Greek and Near Eastern beliefs and practices. Bahrani notes that Praxiteles’ Aphrodite of Knidos served as the starting point for the idealized classical nude female body. She compares this artistic template to contemporary Babylonian ideals, thereby highlighting shared cultural influences as well as distinctively held taboos. The evolution of feminine imagery in each culture was a result of different understandings and attitudes toward femininity. In her investigation she repudiates prevailing scholarly stereotypes of Greek “nudes” as “high art” and Near Eastern “naked” female figurines as “fertility fetishes.” She instead analyzes the ethnic differences in feminine aesthetics and anxieties about the nude body and points to their utility in allowing us to differentiate culturally constructed Greek and Near Eastern worldviews, despite widespread Hellenization. (TNK 2023)

Fabre-Serris, Jacqueline, Keith, Alison and Klein, Florence, editors. Identities, Ethnicities and Gender in Antiquity. De Gruyter, 2021.

A wide ranging volume that handles the specific intersection of gender and ethnicity and considers how the interaction of these two forms a central core of a people’s identity, this collection is a great trove of some of the most recent scholarship on the matter. Most of the articles included are invested, as their primary mode of investigation, in literature, but the scope of the textual evidence considered provides a good introduction to the methods, motivating questions, and theoretical advantages of reading productions of gender and ethnicity in lockstep with one another, as well as provide a hoard of useful citations and references. (ALR, 2022)

Hall, Edith. “Asia Unmanned: Images of Victory in Classical Athens” in War and Society in the Greek World, eds. Rich, John and Shipley, Graham. Routledge Press, 1993.

It’s been well established, inauguraly by Edward Said and later reified by the era of comparative literists and historians who came after him, that a significant tactic in the otherization, barbarization, and racialization lobbed against the those inhabiting the modern Middle East, from the ancient Persians onwards, was effeminization. Taking this as a launch pad, Hall works through the huge corpus of images produced in 5th century Athens depicting the Asian, most often the Persian. Examining the work of gender, namely the adornment and emasculation of warriors, and sexuality, namely the construction of a homosexual aesthetic bound to the figure of Persian men, Hall achieves a sharp and accessible interface with the material through gender and sexuality studies. The piece builds to consider how the Greeks, via their artistic and literary representation “unman”, or depopulate the masculine figure in, all of Asia. (ALR, 2022)

Lewis, Maxine and Christina Robertson, “Shameful Kisses: A History of the Reception – and Rejection – of Homoeroticism in Catullus.”  Antichthon Journal 55: 172–193, 2021.

Differing attitudes toward the legitimacy and legality of sexual practices often set ethnic groups apart from one another, whether the peoples in question were contemporary or separated by millennia. Lewis and Robertson address the reception of Catullus’ Carmina in Anglophone literature and note numerous concerted efforts to erase, adapt, or cloak the homoeroticism and male-on-male sexual violence present in a number of these Neoteric poems. This article analyses and surveys several translations of the Carmina spanning from the eighteenth to the twentieth century in which translators strategically bowdlerize homoerotic words, omit male lovers, and bend the gender of the male-lover Juventus to minimize Catullus’ homoerotic content. Censorship and homophobia played a significant role in the reception, reading, and production of Catullus’ poems during this time. The article makes the important point that the role of translation practices in the perpetuation of oppression and historical inaccuracy must be recognized and acknowledged. (TNK 2023)

Mowat, Chris, “Don't be a Drag, Just be a Priest: The Clothing and Identity of the Galli of Cybele in the Roman Republic and Empire,” Gender & History 33 (2): 296–313, 2021.

This article explores the unique gender construction of the Galli priests of the Phrygian cult of Cybele and their parallels—in intentionally and publicly transgressing gender norms—to contemporary drag performers. The Galli, who were priests during the late Republican and Early Imperial periods, were biologically male. Through their practice of self-castration and their donning of feminine clothing and make-up, however, they extracted themselves from the dictates of the prevailing hegemonic masculinity. Rather than rejecting masculine norms in favor of their feminine counterparts, however, the Galli categorically refused to be either modest or cloistered. To preserve “Romanonormativity” and a strong gender binary, the Roman government legally prohibited their citizens from joining the ranks of the Galli. In such a manner, they discouraged male members of their own ethnic group from flouting sexual norms that the state actively promoted. The animosity with which U.S. governing authorities have treated drag culture, Chris Mowat suggests, provides an apt modern parallel. (TNK 2023)
 

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Kim, Patricia Eunji. "Race, Gender, and Queenship in Book 2 of Vitruvius’s de Architectura." Arethusa 55 (1): 19-45, 2022.

Digging into Virtuvius’ de Architectura, among the discussions of public bath design and military camps, Kim examines the story of the Carian Queen, Artemisa II, who defeated the Greeks at Rhodes and commissioned a Bronze statue in commemoration of her victory. Entwining the portrayals of Cleopatra and Artemia, especially in regards to the aesthetic and political language used to distinguish the women, Kim deftly argues that the projects of racing and gendering are integral, intersectional facets to Roman imperial power and its instantiations. Importantly, Kim’s demonstration of “vulnerability” as a characteristic read upon both women in contrast to Roman masculaization opens up the theoretical and methodological workings of the paper to a much broader schema. (ALR, 2022)

Merck, Mandy. “The city’s achievements: the patriotic Amazonomachy and ancient Athens”, in Tearing the Veil: Essays on Femininity, ed. Susan Lipschitz, 95–115, 2012.

The effeminizing eye of the Greek in most Oriental contexts finds  antithesis in their treatment, representation, and mythologization of Amazonian women. In this essay, Merck examines the construction of “the Amazonian race”, as a group of warrior women, masculinized not only in their image but also in their patriotism. It is this latter emphasis, one which helps parse the meaning of city-states and their constituents for the construction of gender identity on an interregional scale. The piece is a great counterbalance to Hall’s “Asia Unmanned” mentioned above, which when read through the same critical lens helps form a robust theory of gendering as a tool of ethinc and racial otherization. (ALR, 2022)

Mitter, Partha,. “Western Theories of Beauty and Non-Western Peoples.” In Artistic Visions and the Promise of Beauty, eds. K.M. Higgins, S. Maira, S. Sikka, Springer International, 2017.

This chapter in Artistic Visions and the Promise of Beauty: Cross-Cultural Perspectives examines standards of beauty in the West during the 18th and 19th centuries and their historic relationship to the Greco-Roman sculptures that influenced Renaissance artists and were the basis for later Western theories of beauty. Partha Mitter begins by considering the influence of ancient Greek aesthetics of perfection on Renaissance artists. Plato’s valorization of the ideal, as opposed to the natural, was particularly influential for contemporary and later Europeans. Renaissance and post-Renaissance artists received Greek ideals and aesthetics in tandem and thus fashioned a “Platonic ideal” of female perfection that was strongly influenced by the work of Greek sculptors. In the 19th century, when European thinkers became increasingly invested in the notion that their civilization had inherited all that was admirable in the classical world, Western artists further embraced a racially pure whitewashed reception of Greek ideals of beauty. Thus, as the Greco-Roman sculptures, canonized during the Renaissance became coded as intrinsically white, standards of beauty reflected and uplifted those same features. (TNK, 2023)

Ogden, Daniel. “Rape, Adultery and the Protection of Bloodlines in Classical Athens” in Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds, eds. Susan Deacy and Karen F. Pierce, Classical Press of Wales, 25–42, 2002.

Found in the landmark volume, Rape in Antiquity, which first catalogued various instances of sexual violence and their meanings, Ogden’s work on bloodlines and their legitimacy particularly serves an our understanding of biological race as it interacts with sexuality. The paper considers the huge anxiety of legitimate heirs and inherited citizenship in Periclean Athens, while indexing the additional threat, thus, posed by rape and adultery. The political context of this chapter helps to shape a broader understanding of female sexuality in Classical Athens. Of additional interest to readers of this bibliography from the same volume might be Lucy Byrne’s “Fear in the Seven Against Thebes” concerning enslavement and rape in drama and Thoman Harrison’s “Herodotus and the Ancient Greek Idea of Rape” which takes an ethnographic overview of the matter. (ALR, 2022)

O’Hearn, Leah, “Conquering Ida: An Ecofeminist Reading of Catullus’ Poem 63.” Antichthon Journal 55, 116–135, 2021.

This article uses methodologies of ecofeminism and gender theory to explore Catullus’ Poem 63, which tells the tale of Attis and Cybele. As Leah O’Hearn argues, Catullus had an ulterior motive, utilizing the mythic character of Attis to provide a polarized contrast between Rome and an orientalized “East.” The poem is set in the (u)ntamed woods of Mount Ida in Phrygia—a kingdom in ancient Anatolia. Investigating the transformation that Catullus’s Attis underwent in the wilderness of Ida, O’Hearn highlights the ancient author’s implicit contrast between the West and the East, the masculine and the feminine, the civilized and the wild. As the Phrygian consort of Cybele becomes consumed in her cult and self-castrates, Catullus revels in his transformation into a feminine, slave-like, and animalistic entity, the implied antithesis of a Roman man. (TNK 2023)

Ray, Ujjayini.   "'Idealizing Motherhood': The Brahmanical Discourse on Women in Ancient India (circa 500 BCE–300 CE." Ph.D. Dissertation. University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies (United Kingdom), 1999.

This study investigates the Brahmanical discourse on women in ancient India during the period from 500 BCE to 300 CE, focusing on the portrayal of women in key Brahmanical texts. The thesis posits that Brahmanism developed a distinctive discourse about women in its sacred texts which depicted them as sexually insatiable and, therefore, sinful. Brahmanism recognized the crucial role women played in sustaining the key pillars of the Brahmanical social order, namely in maintaining caste and lineage purity and supporting the familial unit. To manage this paradox of sinfulness, Brahmanism devised a system of control through the categorization of women based on their reproductive capabilities. This system differentiated the 'normative' from the 'deviant' woman, with the mother, or procreatrix, receiving the highest status due to her central role in reproduction. Wives and daughters, as potential procreatrixes, could easily introduce impurity and dishonor—and thus immense cultural importance was placed upon the wife's chastity and the daughter's virginity. In her dissertation, Ray emphasizes many other instances in which Brahmanical texts objectified women and contributed to their portrayal as 'others'. (DN, 2024)

A thought that often emerges in approaching race in the ancient world is that race might not have existed but homeland-based discrimination did. The reason for this is that the barbarian – that uncivilized, hated being – was by definition a person born in the non-Greek world. The following works attempt to explain how geographies and historiographies that detail space contribute to a salient construction of the foreigner and the qualities which they embody. They also attempt to come to terms with cartography and topological imaginations.
 

Ben-Eliyahu, Eyal. Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity. University of California Press, 2019.

Conceptual geography was not only an important facet of relationships between ethnic groups, but connections to specific places often helped, literally and metaphorically, to define a people's orientation. Specifically examining this intimate relationship in the context of Judaism and Jewish intellectual history, Ben-Eliyahu's work explores spatial awareness in post-Biblical antiquity. While the work does little to contextualize the project of Jewish homeland studies in the modern era, it is a largely insightful examination of how ethnicity and religious cohesion is predicated on histories of self that are bound to changing landscapes and notions of the "Holy Land." Specifically exploring such changes in the Age of Hadrian, Ben-Eliyahu lends both theories of intimacy and place alongside well-formed historiographical work to the study of Judaism in antiquity.

Calame, Claude. “Uttering Human Nature by Constructing the Inhabited World: The Well-Tempered Racism of Hippocrates,” in Masks of Authority: Fiction and Pragmatics in Ancient Greek Poetics. Cornell University Press, 135–156, 2005.

The Hippocratic Corpus offers insight into ancient notions of race and ethnicity by virtue of its expansive categorization of various geographically disparate groups. While not all produced by Hippocrates, the Corpus is bound by a common notion of environmental determinism, asserting that the specific characteristics, temperaments, and physicalities of a population are largely due to the location from which they hail. Calame, in this chapter from his book Masks of Authority, explores the pseudoscientific racism that underlies Hippocrates’ project as well as more modern adoptions of the Hippocratic ethic. Serving as a thorough introduction to many aspects of Hippocrates and his legacy, Calame should be read by those who hope to glean more insight to geography as the foundational constructor of racialized hierarchies. (ALR, 2020)

Clarke, Catherine. “An Island Nation: Re-reading Tacitus’ ‘Agricola.’” The Journal of Roman Studies 91: 94–112, 2001.

Mono-chromatic differentiation, that is racial and ethnic demarcations which exist between groups of the same skin-color, contributes to a substantial portion of all racialized encounters in the ancient world. One set of interrelations that illustrates this phenomenon took place between the Romans and the Celts, the inhabitants of the British Isles during the 1st century CE, who were conquered under the Roman general Agricola. Katherine Clarke’s close reading of Tacitus' Agricola constitutes an important intervention in environmental studies, as she demonstrates how Britain’s geographic otherness and isolation made it, for Tacitus and his countrymen, a natural and elusive foe. Clarke’s work is bolstered by a vast array of ancient sources and makes valuable contributions to island theory – the examination of how islands manifest in human history and imagination. (ALR, 2020)
 

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Elliot, Colin, “The Ecology of Exchange: The Monetization of Roman Egypt.” The American Historical Review 126 (3): 900–921, 2021.

The import of the Nile as a geographic body has been well concluded, yet it is its connection with the processes of monetization and economic exchange that is taken up by Elliot in this work of environmental history. Elliot explores how the cyclicality of the Nile —the rains, the flooding, the recessions— shaped the economic customs of Roman Egypt, namely bringing to surface the imperial entwinements of ecology and currency. This paper posits one frame by which to read the development of coinage in Egypt, which helps to explore a larger trajectory of trade and cultural interchange. Elliot’s work enables the construction of one method, the eco-logical/-nomical, by which a colonial history can be told; in adeptly reading the annual meteorological rhythms, the facile claim “Greeks and Romans brought coinage to Egypt” is eschewed, and instead focalized is the meaning of coinage to an indigenous Egyptian populous whose own engagement with their environment grants important access to understanding both their culture and the interface it had with the occupying Romans. (ALR, 2022)

Miller, Michael W., "The Mediterranean Ethiopian: Intellectual Discourse and the Fixity of Myth in Classical Antiquity," Dissertation, California State University, 2010.

Understandings of what the terms “Ethiopia” and “Ethiopians” mean have drastically changed since the time of the ancient Greeks. In antiquity, “Ethiopia” was a broad term that encompassed much of Africa and wasn’t pinpointed to a specific area. In his 2010 dissertation, Michael Miller demonstrates how perceptions of “Ethiopians” evolved from ideas of geography, myth, ethnography, art, and rumor. The exonym given to the group by the Greeks gives scholars an insight into how the Greeks conceptualized themselves vs. others and how this imagined social difference was expressed. According to the environmental theory of social identity, dominant at the time, the darker skin of the “Ethiopians” was believed to be the result of their relationship with the sun. Using mythology and evolving cartographic understandings (which involved scholars and travelers searching for a marginalized “Ethiopia” located at the point the sun came closest to the land), the Greeks created a positionality for the Ethiopians that fit into their larger worldview and sense of history. (TNK, 2023)

Nippel, Wilfried. “The Construction of the ‘Other,’” in Greeks and Barbarians, ed. Thomas Harrison, Routledge, 278-310, 2002.

Though this work could easily belong in the section on ethnicity, the most interesting reading Nippel presents is that of topoi as “commonplaces” which creates a topological throughline in this chapter. Nippel’s primary interest is how, if Barbarian marks out a shifting position of relative non-Greekness, the spatial realm of the Barbarian is altered. The piece is dense with the names of ethnic groups, tribes, and polities most of whom are pulled from Herodotus and Xenophon, but its real strength lies in its close analysis of the terminologies of differentiation.  Readings of topoi as they pertain to Greeks and Romans, the latter being a once barbarous group, are particularly interesting and frames these tensions of identity as tensions of boundary and empire. Nippel makes a curious move in the last pages of the chapter, shifting to think about the Medieval and early-modern eras and considering how topoi and otherness are picked by the European empires successive of the Greeks as a pattern of translatio imperii, transfer of power, marked out in historiographical literature.  (ALR, 2021)
 

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Noegel, Scott B. "Greek Religion and the Ancient Near East." In The Blackwell Companion to Greek Religion, ed. Daniel Ogden. Blackwell, 21–37. 2006.

As is increasingly acknowledged, Aegean and Near Eastern religions were deeply entangled throughout antiquity. Such connections are readily apparent in Hesiod’s Theogony and in the mythological texts, rituals, and cult practices of both societies. How did this come to be? Some scholars posit that an ancient Near Eastern – Aegean cultural koine accounts for many parallel developments. Others suggest that major coastal cities served as settings for intensive and extended cross-cultural dialogue. In entrepots and colonial establishments, merchants, sailors, artisans, soldiers, diplomats, locals, and settlers interacted, formed relationships, and exchanged ideas. A shared religion often provides common ground and enhances trust, which likely provided an incentive for Greeks and Near Easterners to engage in religious translation. The strategic practice of interpretatio, in which Hellenes equated their native gods with the gods of the Near East, is therefore a concern of scholars. So too, many have highlighted the willingness of Greeks to invite or tolerate the presence of particularly compelling foreign cults on Greek soil. Religion has played a major role in helping to mediate cultural exchanges between various peoples of the Mediterranean to this day. While the ideas summarized here provide plausible understandings of Greek religions in relation to their Near Eastern counterparts, they barely scratch the surface of the intimate ties forged between these two important ancient civilizations. (TNK, 2023)
 

As a resource primarily devoted to students, it is undeniable that one of primary loci for race’s construction is the classroom, which often serves as a port of introduction to terminologies, theories, and cases that alter both the teacher and the student’s interface with the subject matter. The following resources speak to the process of critical pedagogy which aim to (dis)orient the teaching of race in the ancient studies Classroom, as well as those which document the use of Classics in educational settings, especially colonial education programs, across the globe. 
 

Capettini, Emilio and Rabinowitz, Nancy Sorkin (eds.). Classics and Prison Education in the US. Routledge, 2021.

While, at least in my opinion, it is clear that the United States’ carceral system must be met not with any gentle hand of reform, but with absolute abolition, it is also clear that the movement towards decarceration, and  eventually justice, must include the teaching and educating of incarcerated individuals. With each chapter taken up a teacher –graduate students and tenured professors alike– reflecting on syllabi, course material, classroom activities, and teaching methods that they used to bring the ancient world into the extremely raced, classed, and gendered space of the American prison, the collection is capacious, touching upon various topics in Classics and ancient studies. This is a timely and necessary piece of scholarship not just for Classics’ pedagogy in prison, but for the field writ-large. (ALR, 2022) 

Dugan, Kelly P. "The “Happy Slave” Narrative and Classics Pedagogy: A Verbal and Visual Analysis of Beginning Greek and Latin Textbooks," New England Classical Journal 46 (1): 62–87, 2019. 

The language of slavery is one students of Latin and Greek are indoctrinated into and normalized in the face of typically at the onset of their training through the formulaic vocabulary sets and examples of many textbooks. It is this phenomenon, focalized in the tropic recurrence of “the Happy Slave”, that Dugan interrogates in this essay. Using Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), an approach cultivated between scholars of social semiotics and education theory, Dugan examines the being of the Happy Slave as presented by these texts, and further how this presentation is designed to suggest, and manipulate, certain de-raced and generally sanitized iterations of antiquity for its student audience. The work presents an important example of interrogation and intervention of the facets of the field which seem somehow the most immoveable; these systems and structures of learning Classics need not innately occlude antiracist methods. (ALR, 2022)

Goff, Barbara. 'Your Secret Language': Classics in the British Colonies of West Africa. Bloomsbury Press, 2014.

Opening with an arresting anecdote of a young West African boy requesting a European education commissioner that he be taught Latin which was the “secret language” of white individuals and from where they “derive [their] power”, Goff’s work on the teaching of Classics in West Africa through the British colonial period provides a hoard of important regional case studies. Goff’s use of anecdote, combined with the sheer force of her citation throughout makes the work a useful examination of colonial pedagogies in postcolonial worlds, and the meaning of a “Classical education” outside of the field’s stereotypical student body. (ALR, 2022)

Morse, Heidi. "Beyond Reading, 'Riting, and 'Rithmetic: Black Elocutionary Education in Post-Emancipation America." American Journal of Philology 143 (2): 279–304, 2022.

Tracing the educational programs started and led by Black classicists in the south of the 19th century –among them William Sander Scarborough, Anna Julia Cooper, Phillis Wheatley, and Mary Church Terrell– Morse’s piece unpacks the development of rhetoric as a toolkit for engagement in democracy and citizenship in post-Jim Crow, pre-Civil Rights Movement America. Cataloging the various textbooks written for this method of elocution and their pedagogical entanglements. The article’s focus on sonic pedagogies and their relevance to an altered “soundscape” of  American classicism is particularly engaging and invests in a way of thinking about the resonances of educational patterns over time, regional, and racial contexts. Morse is sure to expose readers with this to an archive of Black educators, their methods, and the import of their teaching for the development of a student body which, though excluded from equal participation, was oriented towards civic engagement. (ALR, 2022)

Umachandran, Mathura. “Disciplinecraft: Towards an Anti-racist Classics”, TAPA 152 (1): 25–31, 2022.

Opening with the trenchant question, “what would it take to imagine and to materialize an anti-racist discipline of Classics”, Mathura Umachandran’s enormously quotable essay found in an equally important issue of TAPA swirling around the epistemic import of “Classics after COVID”, is indispensable to a critical examination of the field of Classics. Balanced on a series of suggestions and attended by a wealth of citations, from Agbamu to Wynter, to guide any rigorous effort to render anti-racist the mechanics of the field, this piece, despite its relative brevity, coheres a wide variety of anti-racist efforts implored by, and suggestibly against, the larger political movements of academia. It is a valuable resource which merits frequent return and handles its examined subject with a necessarily critical insider’s eye. (ALR, 2022)
 

Artists across the world have long mobilized Greco-Roman literature as a prompt to reimagine, articulate, and imbue with recognized universal value stories pertinent to their own cultural experience. For authors interested anti- and post-colonial literatures, reframing classical myths and narratives has likewise allowed them, in the words of Emily Greenfield, "to mediate and represent subaltern conditions and experience and to give them wider currency." Their works – whether set in the Caribbean or in the American South or in some other highly racialized sphere –subvert any sense that the lives of those who struggle under and against white supremacy are not epic, tragic, or worthy of song.  
 

Greenwood, Emily. “Middle Passages: Mediating Classics and Radical Philology in Marlene NourbeSe Philip and Derek Walcott,” in I. Moyer, A. Lecznar, and H. Morse (eds.), Classicisms in the Black Atlantic. Oxford University Press, 30–56, 2020.

The Middle Passage was the leg of the triangular trade wherein African slaves were moved to plantations in America, usually carried on European boats. Emily Greenwood selects two representations of the voyage – Walcott’s Omeros and NourbeSe Philip’s Zong! – and uses them as points of mediation: first as “classical myths and/or texts that serve to mediate and disseminate Black Atlantic experience,” and second as “tempering or reconciling received ideas of classical texts.” Unlayering the Greco-Roman epic tradition, which pervades the motivations and aesthetics within both works, Greenwood demonstrates how both Walcott and NourbeSe Philip mobilize Latin in a production of reorienting and dismembering structures of power.  

Morrison, Toni. “Unspeakable Things Unspoken: The Afro-American Presence in American Literature” from The Tanner Lectures on Human Value, University of Michigan, 1988. 

The first paragraph alone of Toni Morrison’s 1988 Tanner Lecture on Human Values is enough to exercise one’s brain and suspend typical expectations of language. Morrison, most broadly, seeks to locate African-Americanness in a canon it has long been present, yet unacknowledged, in. A student of Greek at Howard, Morrison's works are imbued with resonances of – and clear departures from – ancient mythology. Morrison is especially interested in how canons are constructed and in the processes of legitimation, inclusion, and flattening. As she puts it, “The subliminal, the underground life of a novel, is the area most likely to link arms with the reader and facilitate making it one’s own.” Morrison provides an excellent entry to Classical reception, as she frequently mentions both Classical works and the scholars who unpack them (Bernal makes an important appearance). Yet she also moves beyond what the Classical canon is to discuss what it has become and, powerfully, what it can mean. (ALR, 2020)

• For more information on the Classical threads woven within Morrison’s works, see Justine McConnell’s Postcolonial Sparagmos: Toni Morrison’s Sula and Wole Soyinka’s The Bacchae of Euripides: A Communion Rite, which also draws attention to Soyinka’s translation of the Bacchae (undertaken while he was political refugee in London). Tessa Royon’s “The Africanness of Classicism in the Work of Toni Morrison” published in African Athena: New Agendas, also explores the entanglements and tensions between Morrison and the Classics. 

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Murray, Jackie. “W.E.B. Du Bois' The Quest of the Silver Fleece: The Education of Black Medea,” in TAPA 149 (2): 143–162, 2019. 

Through the examination of a single Du Bois novel, The Quest of the Silver Fleece, Jackie Murray attempts to demonstrate a Classically informed and compelled character using biographical analysis and literary examination. Murray uses The Quest of the Silver Fleece to meditate on  Du Bois’ beliefs on higher education and political representation, especially through the myth of Medea and Jason. The text is well paired with Rankine’s “Classics for All” chapter, as both discuss Black access to Classical pedagogies and the motivations behind this education. Moreover, Murray receives not only Du Bois’ the Souls of Black Folks but also the Argonautica of Apollonius. The cooperative reading lends new meaning to both texts and binds them to a larger conversation about the Classical education of Black America. (ALR, 2020)

Rankine, Patrice. Ulysses in Black: Ralph Ellison, Classicism, and African American Literature. University of Wisconsin Press, 2006.

Heroism and the idiom of the Classical hero extant in the art, aesthetic, and experience of Black Americans is the central exploration Rankine presents in Ulysses in Black. Through tracing the “journey” of the hero, outlined in the first part as the journey “From Eurocentrism to Black Classicism”, and the second part as “Ralph Ellison’s Black American Ulysses”, the book presents a rich catalogue of Black experiences of the Classical canon and by this presents Classics as one mechanism of the formation of Black American identity. Though the text is essentially an exploration of reception, on account of his crafting Ralph Ellison as the emblematic creator in the Black Classical tradition, the work is perhaps best situated in literary and performance studies as a close reading of Invisible Man and Juneteenth demonstrates how to read Classical presence out of Black literature rather than into it. (ALR, 2021)

One of the most important texts discussed in Ulysses in Black, though briefly, is Countée Cullen’s Medea and Other Poems (1935), a collection which recasts Euripides' Medea alongside several other characters from the Classical canon which is further discussed in Lillian Courti’s “Countée Cullen’s Medea” in African American Review (1998). For more treatment of Black American Classical theatre traditions, receptions, and productions, Kevin Westmore’s collections Black Dionysus: Greek Tragedy and African American Theatre (2010) and Black Medea: Adaptations in Modern Plays (2013) are good places to look.

Ward, Jesmyn. Salvage the Bones. Bloomsbury Press, 2011.

Salvage the Bones is a novel by author Jesmyn Ward, published in 2011, that follows a Black American working-class family living in Mississippi and dealing with the events and aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. The narrator, Esch, finds that the mythical story of Medea resonates with parts of her life. In an interview with the Paris Review, Ward says of Esch’s attachment to the myth, “it infuriates me that the work of white American writers can be universal and lay claim to classic texts, while black and female authors are ghetto-ized as ‘other.’ I wanted to align Esch with that classic text, with the universal figure of Medea, the antihero, to claim that tradition as part of my Western literary heritage.” Ward expertly draws on the universal themes of family, infidelity, and motherhood by placing the classic legend of Medea in direct dialogue with the story of a Black teenage girl in the 21st century American South. (LC, 2021)
 

The wide array of sources in this section will lead the reader to various receptions – intellectual, political, artistic, and cultural – and illustrate the multifaceted approach and form that reception as a method can take. The literature and philosophy of the Greeks and Romans became the foundation of educational curriculums in schools and universities worldwide. In colonial settings, Europeans hoped a classical education would prove useful in forestalling or avoiding revolutions. So, too, military leaders and politicians have long studied the imperial tactics and racial practices of Athenians and Romans for their own purposes. The cultural legacy of the classical world is neither inherently good nor bad, but people on nearly all ends of the social and political spectrum have found this legacy particularly useful to think with.
 

Green, Toby. “Beyond Culture Wars: Reconnecting African and Jewish Diasporas in the Past and the Present,” in K. Gurminder, K. Bhambra et al. (eds.). African Athena: New Agendas. Oxford University Press, 138–155, 2011.

Green states that Bernal’s intentions in Black Athena to bring Jewish and African histories closer together – through positing an Afro-Asiaticism that underlies western civilization – ultimately fails. Using a framework of hybridity, however, Green offers a reading of Bernal that generates commonality between Jewish and African communities rather than discord. More than anything, Green is writing a piece of reception on one aspect of Bernal’s far stretching argument, namely that the unyielding divisions between Jewish and African communities can be traced through certain historical arcs to the Atlantic Slave Trade. (ALR, 2020)

Hamer, Mary. “Queen of Denial.” Transition 72: 80–92, 1996.

Cleopatra VII is presented in duality; she is either a ruler or a homewrecker, a historical figure or a cinematic sensation, and, most recently, a Black woman or a white woman. Examining years of fierce historical debate, Mary Hamer questions the obsession with Cleopatra’s race (for an example of this see the Daily News article that the image is drawn from). She aims not to draw a definitive statement about her race, which many scholars have done in the past, but to instead explore the reasons why many are so concerned about assigning racial identity to Cleopatra in the first place, and what that fervent interest might say about racism in modern society and in ancient studies. In Hamer’s own words, “the demands of the movement have always determined Cleopatra’s image.” This article is an invaluable source for anyone interested in learning more about a ruler whose name has not only become commonplace in Western society but has also been utilized as an “argument… carried out among white people and the intellectuals who” have historically set “the terms of discussion.” (RT, 2021)

Moyer, Ian, Adam Lecznar, and Heidi Morse, eds. Classicisms in the Black Atlantic. Oxford University Press, 2020.

The Black Atlantic is a region marked out for its antiquity and for its trauma. Millions were dragged through its waters. These individuals would lose their families, homes, and freedoms only to become the foundation of the New World and all that would be built upon it. Classicisms in the Black Atlantic receives and responds to various traditions – literary, intellectual, philosophical – that emerged from the region, and it considers these in light of the Classical canon. (ALR, 2020)

Orrells, Daniel. "Greek Love, Orientalism and Race: Intersections in Classical Reception," The Cambridge Classical Journal 58: 194–230, 2012.

Victorian-era British scholars were forced to grapple with pederasty in ancient Greece and the moral dilemmas brought about by increasing contact with the “savage” and “sexually deviant” Orient due to British expansionism. The British blamed the Greeks’ pederastic behavior on Phoenician encounters in Crete (i.e., on non-white, non-European influence). This fed the “worrying prospect of ‘going native’” during British expeditions into Africa and Asia." Just as the British could colonize the East with military might and exploitation, the British could be reverse-colonized by the East with moral depravity, impure sexuality, and effeminacy. Like their supposed racial ancestors, the Greeks, the British could suffer a “regression back into the Orient,” blurring the comfortably distinct racial lines between the East and the West. This line of reasoning also forced the British to reconsider the merits of a Classical education. Did Classical literature “civilize” or did it allow for the romanitization of its homoerotic, “uncivilizing” undertones? And more troublingly, were the Greeks secretly “savage”? And how much of that “savagery” did the British inherit?  (HH, 2021)

Said, Edward. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1979.

As ubiquitous a text as it may be, Said's Orientalism is worth revisiting, specifically as a work of Classical reception. Though his main interest is with the colonial movements which follow the Napoleonic Wars, Said, as an intellectual historian, places the foundational production of orientalism within the years following the Greco-Persian Wars. Further, Said puts an important tension on the dichotomies of East versus West, undoings which serve any project of ethnic and racial examination and certainly those of antiquity. Finally, Said's seminal text is extraordinarily useful for its references and bibliography, as he culls together sources, historical moments, and artistic productions that are each worthy of exploration.

• For more information on Said's relevance within the field of Classics, consult Phiroze Vasunia's article "Hellenism and Empire: Reading Edward Said". 

Sharpe, Kenan Behzat. “Hellenism without Greeks: The Use (and Abuse) of Classical Antiquity in Turkish Nationalist Literature.” Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 5 (1): 169–190, 2018.

The Turkish nationalism that arose alongside Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who is considered the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, deliberately set itself apart from material and cultural markers of the deteriorated Ottoman Empire, instead focusing on emphasizing Turkish connections to ancient civilizations. In this article, Dr. Kenan Sharpe delves into the ways that two Turkish literary movements, New Hellenism and Blue Anatolia, sought to “establish a national mythology based in geography,” evoking the ancient histories of Anatolian civilizations such as the Hittites, Assyrians, and Trojans, which shared similar geographical spaces with Turkey. Dr. Sharpe argues that these literary movements also served as a ploy to incorporate Turkey into a broader Western European tradition based on classical heritage, and in doing so attempt to “challenge their neighbor Greece’s claim” to Hellenic civilization. This article is a fascinating example of the ways modern nations utilize ancient ethnic and cultural heritage (whether real or perceived) for both intranational and international relations and prestige. (RT 2021)

Vasunia, Phiroze. The Classics and Colonial India. Oxford University Press, 2013.

The Classics in Colonial India were received first by the British colonizers, who were interested in conceptualizing their new domain and the people indigenous to it through the frames of the history and myth that appeared to support or motivate their imperial ideology. Shortly thereafter, however, it would be the colonized Indians who used Classics both to conceptualize the conditions and mechanisms of their colonization and to imagine a future that lay beyond it. These various receptions are central to Vasunia’s project, which considers representations of figures as central as Alexander (Sikhander) the Great and Gandhi. Vasunia’s use of both English and Indian archives, as well as his own familiarity with vernacular Indian traditions allows him access to intellectual traditions and sources not previously considered in the realm of Classics. (ALR, 2020)

Withun, David, “American Archias: Cicero and The Souls of Black Folk,” Classical Receptions Journal 13 (3): 384–398, 2021.

W.E.B Du Bois’ The Souls of Black Folk has remained a cornerstone of African American literature due to its foundational essays on race, education, and political power. As David Withun focalizes in this article, Du Bois sets up his arguments for the necessity to establish equal civil rights for African Americans in emulation of a legal proceeding. Having a strong classical education himself, he manifests his defense through the framework of Cicero’s Pro Archia. Du Bois draws an explicit parallel in his advocacy for liberal education for black youth to Cicero’s defense of the arts. Moreover, he likens his black students to the defendant Archias, a Syrian who was aided by Cicero in proving his Roman citizenship. Like Cicero, Du Bois argues for the legal rights of his defendants in the context of a republic and highlights the importance of the arts and humanities. Education in the liberal arts, according to Du Bois, constitutes a crucial tool for the advancement of African Americans in U.S. society. (TNK 2023)
 

Embrace of racial conversation in Classical scholarship likely happened first not in the pages of some journal but on the Greek stage, which since pre-modern times has had to confront the racialized implications of various dramas and texts. The many sources in this category will lead you towards several digitized performances of ancient plays as well as their modern reimaginings. Some are tragedies that were directed and set in the Global South, while others were performed within the racial subtext in the West. All lend tools to read, and read critically, literary texts and performances produced in antiquity.
 

Oedipus El Rey, Electricidad, & Mojada by Luis Alfaro

Luis Alfaro, a Chicano playwright from East Los Angeles, first adapted Greek Tragedy set to the tune of Latinx struggle with his Electricidad, a 2003 rendition of Sophocles’ Electra about vengeance and paternal piety in the Cholo Gang. In 2010 he followed the Sophoclean trend directing Oedipus El Rey, a play about prison gangs, and in 2015 Alfaro put out Mojada – a take on Medea about an undocumented mother traversing the Mexican-American border with her children. Alfaro’s Chicano Greek trilogy is a harsh reenvisioning of the originals, putting pressure on the theme of exile to consider incarceration and on the theme of familial duty to consider gangs. All three plays can be found for free through the Center Theatre Group and additionally have regular runs in New York City theaters. (ALR, 2020)

Antigone in Ferguson by Bryan Doerries & the Theatre of War Productions

On August 9, 2014, Michael Brown’s body lay exposed on the streets of Ferguson, Missouri for hours after his murder. The gathering crowd, aware that a white police officer had shot the young Black man in the back, several times over, set up a candlelight vigil as they witnessed the state-sanctioned effort to cover up and justify his homicide. The Greek stage provided the (male) citizens of Athens a space to witness great performances of violence and process these communally. Some echoes of that ancient tradition were reborn in 2016 when, in the auditorium of Normandy High School, from which Michael Brown had graduated just eight days prior to his death, Theatre of War productions staged Antigone in Ferguson. The play diverges little from the plot and dialogue of Antigone, but in the context of the shameful exposure of Brown’s body and the fissure this political decision caused in the city of Ferguson, the Sophoclean tragedy took on entirely new meaning. Accompanied with a gospel choir composed of members of the Ferguson community, the production is an ambitious and moving project of healing through art and community. The play is performed frequently, for free, across the United States, and online recordings can be accessed through the Theatre of War’s website. (ALR, 2020)

"Stakes Is High: Roman Elegy, Hip-Hop, and the Ovid Movie" by Jermaine Bryant

Since the birth of Hip-Hop and Rap during the 1980s, the poetic art form has continuously been criticized for its violence, vulgarity, and aesthetic choices. As with other forms of popular Black/African American culture, its detractors misinterpret its central message. A product of the environment in which its composers live, the verse draws attention to the criminalization, disenfranchisement, and destruction of the black community, starting from slavery and exploding with Reagan’s ‘War on Drugs’. Artists of these genres cleverly wrap their strong political statements in smooth beats, suave lyrics, and impressively rhymed bars to challenge a social narrative that opposes and dismisses their cultural experiences. As a poetics of protest, Jermaine Bryant argues that Hip-Hop can be productively placed in dialogue with Roman love elegies of the 1st century BCE. The political critiques and cultural responses in songs like NWA’s F*** The Police and Kanye West’s New Slaves mirror Propertius’ concerted attacks in his Poem 2.7 on Augustus’ attempts to legislate morality. So too, the more sexual and satirical tones of Ovid’s Ars amatoria find parallels in Viktor Vaughn’s Can I Watch? or Kendrick Lamar’s Sing About Me I’m Dying of Thirst. According to Bryant, the political contexts in which both art forms arose account for similarities in their content and reception. Just as Hip-Hop was born under the crackdown of the Regan administration, Roman love elegies could have only gained traction under the social pressures of Augustus’ moral reform policies. Poetry and music, as Bryant cogently argues, have been a powerful tool for critiquing authoritative and oppressive structures of power since Ancient Rome. (TNK, 2023)

Dos Santos, José de Paiva. “The Darkening of Medea: Geographies of Race, (Dis)Placement, and Identity in Agostinho Olavo’s Além do Rio” in The Oxford Handbook of Greek Drama in the Americas, eds. Kathryn Bosher, Fiona Macintosh, et al. Oxford University Press, 2015.

Agostinho Olavo’s Além do Rio (Medea) premiered on stage in Rio in 1961, leaving unfortunately little record of its original production. Its legacy, upon which dos Santos builds his argument, however, is resonant in Brazilian theatrical traditions. Olavo’s Medea was potentially as transgressive to the norms of 1960s Brazil as the original Euripides was to his own Athenian audience, with Olavo adapting the story to reflect the legacy of African slave trade in Brazil and the social conflicts brought on by the presence of blackness in the nation. Olavo’s rendition is acutely critical of the nation state, and Brazil’s purported “racial democracy,” which in the 20th century was used to describe an unrealistic but supposedly realized state of absolute social mobility and racial equality. Além do Rio is complex and requires reading on 1960s Brazil to appreciate more fully, but it is nonetheless foundational to South American Classical receptions and performance traditions. (ALR, 2020)

• For more information on Olavo’s Além do Rio, readers should consult Maria Cecilia de Miranda’s Five Medea’s in Brazil in the Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, which places Olavo in important context with other Brazilian receptions of Medea, as well as introducing rare photographs of these performances. In addition, readers more broadly interested in Brazilian adaptations of Greek tragedy should reference the work of Jorge Andre, who is extensively covered in the Latin American Theatre Review.

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Farrell, Joseph. “Walcott’s Omeros: The Classical Epic in a Postmodern World.” In Epic Traditions in the Contemporary World: The Poetics of Community, eds. M. Beissinger, J. Tylus, S. Wofford,University of California Press, pp. 270–296.

Joseph Farrell explores the genre of epic through the lens of its African exemplars and, especially, Derek Walcott’s Omeros, given that the status of Walcott’s work as an “epic” has been much debated. Farrell argues against any implication of African literary inferiority by questioning the privileged relationship between Europe and the genre of the epic. He points out that later European poets who emulated Homer’s style by “classicizing” the European epic acted inauthentically, as they relied on a culture of writing, rather than the poetics of the oral tradition. He also states that Western writers who deemed African peoples to be “inferior” or “primitive” because of their “lack” of epics were incorrect. African epics have historically been transmitted through the oral tradition. By this measure, the African or Afro-Caribbean epic is more in line with the oral-epic performance culture of ancient Greece and pre-recorded Homeric works than is the European literary tradition. Thus, modern African epic—as seen in Omeros—enjoys a strong classical connection at the same time as it asserts its distinctly Afro-Caribbean identity. (TNK, 2023)

Foley, Helene P. “Reimagining Medea as American Other” in Reimagining Greek Tragedy on the American Stage. University of California Press, 2012.

Euripides’ Medea is one of the most frequently performed and adapted Greek tragedies. For that reason, the ways in which it is adapted for contemporary audiences can be illuminating. Because of Medea’s canonical position as an ethnic “other” from the Greeks, her story can serve as a useful framework for looking at other “others” throughout history. In Helene Foley’s book chapter, “Reimagining Medea as American Other,” she articulates specific axes upon which Medea is reimagined as various others. While the text offers fascinating analysis throughout, of specific interest to the study of race is the third section “Medea as Ethnic Other from the 1970s to the Present.” This section highlights productions that use the ethnic otherness of Medea to examine ethnic and racial tensions in their respective societies. Foley focuses on the trend of interpretations that root Medea in the magical traditions and feminine lineages of the ethnic background of the given Medea. Another area of interest is Foley’s discussion of the narrative of Margaret Garner. Garner, an enslaved woman, had a life story with many parallels to that of Medea, and she is often brought into conversation with the text. This discussion of Garner helps to elucidate the connections between past and present as well as fiction and reality. (JB, 2024)

Goff, Barbara, and Simpson, Michael. Crossroads in the Black Aegean: Oedipus, Antigone, and Dramas of the African Diaspora. Oxford University Press, 2007.

Exploring six productions of Greek tragedy taken up by Black artists in non-European contexts,  Goff and Simpson introduce the reader to performances – and the traditions born from them – of Classical drama that are intentionally racialized and necessarily transgressive. These six performances are, Ola Rotimi's The Gods Are Not To Blame, Rita Dove's The Darker Face of the Earth, Lee Breuer's Gospel at Colonus, Kamau Brathwaite's Odale's Choice, Athol Fugard, John Kani, and Winston Ntshona's The Island, and Femi Osofisan's Tegonni. Most of these performances are inspired by the tales of Oedipus and Antigone, and Goff and Simpson go to great lengths to understand the importance of these two figures in the lifespan of African drama. The result is an in depth and sharp analysis of the Theban cycle and the latent racial hierarchy within it, a hierarchy that is suggested to be highly translatable to the African context. In addition, the collection aims to shift readings in Classical theatre away from psychoanalytic interpretations and instead focalize postcolonial theorists, especially Frantz Fanon, making the text a valuable addition to any syllabus. (ALR, 2021)

Hall, Edith. “Aeschylus’ Persians via the Ottoman Empire to Saddam Hussein” in Cultural Responses to the Persian Wars: Antiquity to the Third Millennium, eds. Emma Bridges, Edith Hall, and P. J. Rhodes. Oxford University Press, 164-193. 2007.

Since Edith Hall’s publication of Inventing the Barbarian in 1989, the idea that Panhellenic Greek identity was forged in response to the Greco-Persian War(s) has been well-trodden. Regardless of the extent to which Hall’s hypothesis is accepted, there is surely truth that engagement with the Persians forced Greek consideration of self-definition, an undertaking that required political and literary pressure. Aeschylus’ The Persians was performed first in 472 BC, soon after the end of the decade long battle which ended in Achaemenid defeat. Since then, the play – which depicts the demise of hubristic Xerxes, attended by his widowed mother and ghost father – has been emblematic of the violence between “The West” and “The East.” Hall’s chapter in her collection Cultural Responses to the Persian Wars: Antiquity to the Third Millennium, traces the production history of The Persians, with focus given to those productions of it that followed the Gulf War and American intervention in the Middle East, as well as performances that happened outside of the western hemisphere. Hall’s work illustrates the value of tracking various forms of a production through different eras, regions, and contexts, and synthesizes around the notion that an inherent hatred for the East is produced by and contained in The Persians. (ALR, 2020)

Hardwick, Lorna and Carol Gillespie (eds.). Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford University Press, 2007.

Though this edited volume uses the frame of post-colonialism as a temporal rather than discursive marker, this collection remains one of the most expansive collections on the non-Western productions and performances of Classics voiced through multiform methods and cultural traditions. Published in 2007, and based primarily off of discussions in the afterlife of a 2004 conference on “Classics in the Post-Colonial World,” there is an eerie quality as the text is forward looking and discusses the future of Classics, a future that at this point remains unrealized, yet helps contextualize the intellectual movement towards “non-traditional” Classics and demonstrates a clear ethic of discipline and disciplinarian culture. (ALR, 2020)

Lecznar, Adam. “The Tragedy of Aimé Césaire” in Classicisms in the Black Atlantic, eds. I. Moyer, A. Lecznar, and H. Morse. Oxford University Press, 197–222, 2020.

Diaspora is an important lens through which to examine receptions and structures of Classicism. Classicisms in the Black Atlantic, which has several other chapters featured in this bibliography, is a collection that examines the theatrical and artistic productions of one particular diaspora, the Black Caribbean, and explores Classical reverberations in slave tradings, rebellions, and settlements in the New World. Adam Lecznar’s examination of Martinican author Aimé Césaire’s corpus uses the Classical philology of Nietzsche to reconsider certain structures within Césaire. Lecznar can be a little difficult to follow if you’re not fully familiar with theories of tragedy, tragic performance, and its reception, but his reading of Césaire is a valuable examination of race through literary reception. Moreover, Lecznar’s examination of the Nietzschean tension within the work of Césaire, itself inspired by and transcending Greek tragedy, brings various regions of reception to heads with each other. (ALR, 2020)

Lee, Spike. Chi-Raq. Distributed by Lionsgate, 2015.

Chi-Raq is a 2015 feature film directed and produced by Spike Lee and co-written by Spike Lee and Kevin Willmott. It is a modern adaptation of the Aristophanes comedy Lysistrata set in the South Side of Chicago, where gang-related gun violence is prevalent. The premise of Aristophanes’ play is that a group of women threaten to withhold sex from their husbands in order to get them to stop the Peloponnesian war. In this adaptation, the girlfriends and wives of the members of two rival gangs do the same after a young girl is accidentally killed in a shooting as a plea to end the violence before another innocent member of the community gets hurt. The women in the film reference the pacifist activist Leymah Gbowee, a real person who led a women’s movement in Liberia to stop the nation’s Second Civil War. Threatening a sex strike was among the strategies the women employed (Mighty be our Powers, Gbowee, 2011). In the tradition of Marcel Camus’ Black Orpheus, the film repurposes a story from classical Greco-Roman mythology in a Black, urban context. (LC, 2021)

Camus, Marcel. Orpheus of the Conception, and Black Orpheus. Based on the play by de Moraes, Vinícius. Distributed by Lopert Films, 1959.

Orpheus of the Conception (Portuguese: Orfeu da Conceição) is a 1956 stage play in three acts written by the Brazilian playwright Vinícius de Moraes, with music by the Brazilian composer Antônio Carlos Jobim. The play follows the two lovers, Orfeu and Eurydice, through the tragic events of the classic myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, this time set in a favela in Rio de Janeiro during Carnaval. At the beginning of the play, Moraes designates that all characters must be played by actors “da raça negra” (of the black race). The play was adapted into a feature-length film titled Black Orpheus (Portuguese: Orfeu Negro) by French director Marcel Camus in 1959 with a primarily Afro-Brazilian cast. The film opens with an image of a bas-relief sculpture in the classical style which shatters to reveal the Black residents of the favela dancing and playing music in celebration. In the same vein, both the film and the original play can be seen as deconstructing the whiteness and exclusivity of the classical canon. Vicky Gan's 2014 piece in The Smithsonian Magazine "Black Orpheus: How a French Film Introduced the World to Brazil" discusses the wider reception of the film in details. (LC, 2021)

Ndiaye, Noémie, “Everyone Breeds in His Own Image: Staging the Aethiopica across the Channel.” Renaissance Drama 44 (2), 2016.

The Aethiopica of Heliodorus, likely written in the 3rd century CE, tells the story of a Nubian King and Queen who produce a white-skinned daughter. Her mother, fearing the stigma of the child’s skin color, arranges for the child to be secreted away, and she is raised in Greece without knowledge of her royal ancestry or heritage. The antics which follow make Aethiopica a phenomenally fun read, as well a rich resource for discussions of race in antiquity. Incidentally, the text was repeatedly rediscovered, gaining new resonance in each context. Ndiaye Noémie, a scholar of identity formation through literature in the early modern era, explores the transmission of Aethiopica in France and the impact its stagings had on British theatre in the 17th century. Performing an ancient work whose stance on racial supremacy is obscure in a context where race and colonial expansion into Africa is a central motivating force imbued new meaning to the text and its reception. (ALR, 2020)

Religious Studies aims to analyze and understand religious practices from an external, empirical, and scholarly perspective. The study of religion is inherently interdisciplinary and often analyzes religious practice on axes of race, among other intersectional identities. Given the centrality of religion to many groups in the ancient world and the diversity of practices among various ethnic and racial groups, applying a religious studies perspective to race in the ancient world is fruitful in understanding the function of race in antiquity. The following sources analyze race and ethnicity through the lens of religion.

Brown, Peter. “Aspects of the Christianisation of the Roman World,” Tanner Lectures on Human Values. Cambridge University, 1993.

Ethnicity is conditioned by several factors: geography, ancestry, language, and importantly, religion. The rise of Christianity from a fringe religious movement to the central dominating and binding identity of the Roman Empire was not a swift nor even a fully understood transition but one that is pertinent to any examination of ethnic mutability and mobility in antiquity. Peter Brown’s lecture explains Christianisation as a multifaceted and often decentralized project, noting, “I have long suspected that accounts of the Christianisation of the Roman world are at their most misleading when they speak of that process as if it were a single entity, capable of a single comprehensive description that, in turn, implies the possibility of a single, all-embracing explanation.” In his view, ethnic alteration was nuanced and imbalanced, yet focalized and meaningful. This selection from the Tanner Lectures series is an accessible and thorough beginning to one's study of Christian identity. (ALR, 2020)

Eliav, Yaron. A Jew in the Roman Bathhouse: Cultural Interaction in the Ancient Mediterranean. Princeton University Press, 2023.

Yaron Eliav employs the Roman bathhouse as a historical microcosm for exploring how Mediterranean Jews interacted with Graeco-Roman culture. In his book, Eliav draws on an interdisciplinary suite of sources—archaeological remains, artistic representations, documentary evidence, and rabbinical literature—to investigate the degree to which Jewish residents of the Roman province of Judea could be said to have been Romanized. In doing so, he develops a model that he terms “filtered absorption” that can be utilized more broadly to conceptualize how potentially vulnerable religious and ethnic minorities interact with the dominant culture in which they live. Eliav’s discussion delves into the social dynamics that evolved in Roman bathhouses, examining how their structure, activities, and cultural components both attracted Jewish residents and proved a site of intense anxiety. This anxiety, which focused both on the attention it drew to the rite of circumcision and on fears of mixing and impurity, sparked a great deal of discussion and divergent choices among rabbis and ordinary Jews alike. Eliav argues that as religious minorities in a dominant culture, Jews were torn between selective assimilation and safeguarding cultural boundaries. Filtered absorption, in which certain “foreign” customs may be reframed as culturally congruent, offers a model for understanding how such minorities “can embrace the lifestyle of the majority while at the same time preserving and maintaining the mores and habits important to them.”  (EKM, 2024)

Harland, Philip. "Climbing the Ethnic Ladder: Ethnic Hierarchies and Judean Responses," Journal of Biblical Literature 13 (3): 665-686, 2019.

Harland explores the strategies three Judean authors—Philo, Paul, and Josephus—used to navigate Greek and Roman ethnic hierarchies, respective to their social and political climate. Philo of Alexandria, for instance, lived during a time of peak ethnic tension between Greeks, Egyptians, and Judeans and thus resorted to aligning Judeans with Greeks by playing into stereotypes of “inferior, seditious Egyptians and superior, loyal Judeans.” Josephus, on the other hand, altered Judean proximity to Greekness depending on rhetorical effect. Like Philo, he brought Judeans closer to Greekness by distancing Judeans from “low-down” Egyptians, but also distanced Judeans from Greekness when characterizing Greek culture as “new and therefore inferior.” Finally, Paul avoided playing into the established ethnic hierarchy at all and created “an alternative to the hegemonic ladder” that placed Judeans at the very top and that tended to “clump together all non-Israelite peoples” in a way that blurred specific ethnic distinctions. These strategies, though each unique and distinct, overlapped in their reliance on the way “othering” stereotypes “generate an ethnic hierarchy.” (HH, 2021)

Miller, David. “The Meaning of Ioudaios and its Relationship to Other Group Labels in Ancient ‘Judaism.’” Currents in Biblical Research 9: 98–126, 2010.

Miller’s article (the first in a series) examines the scholarly conversation around the Greek word ‘Ioudaios’ in early Christian literature, which is often translated as ‘Jew’ or ‘Judean.’ This work serves as a case study for the complications involved with translating ancient labels into modern language. By looking at how the term is used differently in various sources and the studies of various scholars, Miller concludes that when the word was in use, ‘Ioudaios’ was employed by outsiders to describe the group, while ‘Israel’ was the term used by the people to describe themselves. After establishing who used the term and in what context, Miller moves on to uncover the meaning of the term by comparing it to how other groups were labelled at the time – such as by nationality, religious and ethnic affiliation, the latter of which might be separate from or dependent on other factors such as geography. This article would be particularly useful to people interested in the etic and emic resonances of ethnic nomenclature as well as people interested on the socio-historical implications of language. (AP, 2021)

Stern, Elise R. “Esther and the Politics of Diaspora.” The Jewish Quarterly Review 1: 25-53. 2010.

Common understanding of the book of Esther is grounded in the assumption that it was composed in the Jewish diaspora for the Jewish diaspora. In this article, Elise Stern challenges that belief by asserting that Esther was in fact a satire of the diaspora. Because of linguistic and ideological differences between Esther and the other books of the Hebrew Bible considered to be diasporic texts, Stern is unconvinced that Esther belongs to this milieu. Rather, Stern argues that Esther is a text written by Jews living in Yehud/Judea under the Persians or Greeks that critiques diasporic life. Law, kingship, and Jewish identity are all satirized, and Stern argues that the treatment of these topics, particularly the ways in which each is a mutable idea, is unique within the Hebrew Bible. Law in Esther’s Persia is, for instance, overabundant, irreversible, capricious, and linked solely to the Persian king. It thus poses a fitting contrast to Biblical laws. Kingship is comically devalued, and Jewish identity is only visible when under threat. Stern argues that the heavily contextual nature of political satire means that readers outside of those contexts—such as modern scholars—may not pick up on the originally intended message. Recognizing it, however, adds fresh insight into how ethnic differences between Jews may have been cognized in antiquity. (JB, 2024)

Reconstructing race is not just the project of the humanities but one driven by advancements in science and technology. From video games to genomic sequences, modern technology has enabled us to not just discern race through texts and artifacts but through methodologies and methods unavailable to previous generations of scholars. The following sources present a sampling of such projects and also the ethical issues we will contend with in their wake.

Antonio, Margaret, et al. “Ancient Rome: A Genetic Crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean.” Science 366 (6466): 708-714, 2019.

Is it possible to speak about “Romans” as a stable and distinct genetic group? Margaret Antonio and her colleagues set out to answer this question by sequencing 127 genomes of individuals buried in Rome and nearby settlements over a period of 12,000 years (see below). Genetic data provides evidence about interactions between populations and thus allows historians to gain a more complete picture of trade, politics, and alliances in the ancient world. Antonio et al. were especially curious to understand how genomes changed because of Rome’s imperial project. Interestingly, the team found that two significant shifts in the genetic makeup of Roman populations predated its empire. The first took place c. 6000-7000 BCE, at the beginning of the agricultural revolution. The other gained momentum in the newly cosmopolitan Middle Bronze Age and extended until the Early Iron Age (c. 2900-900 BCE). The genetic makeup of ancient Romans didn’t begin to closely resemble that of modern Mediterranean people until the Iron Age, when mass migrations and colonization occurred throughout the region. Rome was founded in that era, ostensibly by bolstering its local population with a diverse group of fugitives and unsettled people. This act heralded the city’s status as a “genetic crossroads” with “highly variable ancestry across individuals” attested from that time forth. The researchers noted a few genetic shifts during the Roman Empire that likely coincided with the movements of people occasioned by imperial dynamics (the importation of captive labor, immigration, etc.). Eastern Mediterranean and Near East genomes, for instance, became far more prevalent. In Late Antiquity, when Rome lost control of its eastern empire and “barbarians” invaded, the researchers noticed a shift away from genomes typical of the Near East and a greater prevalence of genomes typical of central and northern Europe. (AR 2024)
 

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“Gods in Color: Polychromy in Antiquity.” Digitized Exhibit by the Liebieghaus Sculpture Museum, Frankfurt, 2017.

This remarkable online museum resource introduces individuals to the complexity of color and curation, unraveling the story of “white marble,” which historically was not at all white, but rather vividly bright. The curatorial staff at Liebieghaus are among a small but dedicated group of scholars attempting to reconstruct the original coloration of statues from the Greco-Roman world, which were purposefully white-washed for centuries in order to propagate a false notion of aesthetic purity. The Digitorial exhibit gives dozens of reconstructions, that serve to correct the incorrect belief that the Greeks and Romans fetishized white skin as beautiful and virtuous. Via their project, and by drawing attention to others of a similar vein, the Liebieghaus team argue persuasively that while the whitening of statues has usurped ancient conceptions of beauty, race, and self, technological advancements in restoration allow for a reversal of such usurpation. (ALR, 2020)

Nerlich, Andreas. “The infant mummy’s face – Paleo Radiological investigation and comparison between facial reconstruction and mummy portrait of a Roman-period Egyptian child” in Public Library of Science, 2020. 

Forensic reconstruction in the past few years has largely focused its attention, rightly or wrongly, on Egypt. Perhaps this is due to the prevalence of physical remains or to questions regarding Egypt’s ethnic makeup in the Greco-Roman period, but through various projects we now have faces, races and even voices of ancient Egyptians. For example, a team at the Institute of Pathology in München, Germany led by Andreas Nerlich, used CT technology to examine the body of a young child and to create a facial reconstruction. That reconstruction was then compared with the funerary portrait incorporated into its mummy wrappings. The portrait was found to be reasonably accurate, although the child was presented as if slightly older than he turned out to be. (ALR, 2020)

• The ethical considerations that attend to such reconstructions are as valuable to consider as the reconstructions themselves. Jasmine Day’s “Thinking Makes it So: Reflections on the Ethics of Displaying Egyptian Mummies” and Gareth Jones and Maja Whitaker’s “The Contested Realm of Displaying Dead Bodies” are two examples of such ethically-minded meditations. For more specific readings on reconstructional debates, Kenneth C. Nystrom’s “History of Bioarchaeology and Mummy Studies” and Bettina Lonfat and Ina Kaufman’s “A Code of Ethics for Evidence‐Based Research With Ancient Human Remains” lend important insight. 

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Hammar, Emil. “Counter-hegemonic commemorative play: marginalized pasts and the politics of memory in the digital game Assassin’s Creed: Freedom Cry.” Rethinking History 21: 372-395, 2017.

When approaching the issue of race in the ancient world, it is difficult to avoid preconceived notions of how these people looked, acted, and moved through their worlds. Often these logics are informed by the depictions of ancient people and places in popular media. Video games are integral to the formation of this imagination, with one notable example being Assassin’s Creed. Depicting events from Ptolemaic Egypt and the Peloponnesian War, Assassin’s Creed invites players to partake in fundamental moments in world history. In his in-depth examination of Assassin’s Creed’s representational hierarchies, Hammar explores how the game presents “real” and “authentic” visualisations that are intentionally uncomplicated – thereby undermining historical trauma. Hammar argues that video games serve as procedural and performative methods of memory-making and thus should approach their historical subjects with more nuance and care. (ALR, 2020)

Parmenter, Christopher S. “The Twilight of the Gods? Genomic History and the Return of Race in the Study of the Ancient Mediterranean." History and Theory: Studies in the Philosophy of History 0, no 0: 1-26, 2023.

Will the relatively new technology of ancient DNA advance our understanding of population movements in the ancient Mediterranean or plunge us back into a popular embrace of scientific racism? Genomic sequencing of aDNA has generated a tremendous amount of excitement. As Christopher Parmenter argues, however, the supposedly unbiased etic understandings of ancient genetics, if utilized unreflectively, may revivify a deeply troubling racialized “science,” such as was the norm in pre-World War II scholarship. Bioessentialist assumptions typical of earlier theories of racial superiority form a notable undercurrent in what should be a purely scientific analysis of genomic similarities and differences in the ancient Mediterranean. The Human Genome Diversity Project, led by L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, had argued based on ABO blood groups and early gene sequencing for “humankind’s expansion from Africa to the rest of the world.” Parmenter notes that it was a great relief to Greek nationalists of the far right who wished to embrace a purely White racial identity when in 2017 archaeogenetic studies “proved” that present day Greek citizens were the direct descendants of Homer’s Mycenaeans. Another study from 2017, which drew upon a problematically small and biased sample of human remains, similarly allowed people of European and also Egyptian heritage to deny any “African” influence on the stunning achievements of this ancient culture. Researchers in this study used aDNA to suggest that ancient Egyptians had migrated to Africa from west Asia, thereby allowing people with an agenda to deny any claims that Egypt was truly African. This theory, however, has come under severe criticism for taking part in the whitewashing of ancient Egypt, and it has drawn valuable attention to anti-Blackness biases in ancient Mediterranean studies. Even if genomic research on ancient DNA can potentially be utilized in an unbiased manner, Parmenter argues that genomic history cannot be harnessed without leading down a dangerous path of race science. (SC, 2024)
 

Abbreviated Names

AG – Avery Grannan

ALR – Aditi L. Rao

AP – Arin Pogany

AR – Ava Rotondo

CC – Charlie Coleman

CG – Cayla Gancy

CH – Celina Hayes

DN – Diya Nair

EC — Ella Chang

EGC – Eliza Grace Cattau

EK – Elika Khosravani

GK – Grace Kraft

HC — Huntly Cooper

HH — Helen Hung

IM — Isabel Murr

IW – Isabella Whitney

JB – Jord Barnett

KM — Kit Malloy

LC — Laurel Carpenter

LW – Lucy Walaszek

MB – Makae Brieschke

OT – Olivia Tedesco

RT — Ruya Tazebay

SC – Sophie Conrad

SD — Sophia Duby

SJ-F — Siobhan Joyce-Farley

TNK — Thandiwe Knox

XLS – Xinyi (Lynn) Song

If you would like to contribute a source to this document or are interested in getting involved with this project, please contact emorris@barnard.edu for more information!

The Barnard Race and Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean project is invested not only in the work of bibliography and expanding students' research networks, but also in continuing to bring into dialogue scholars, pedagogues, and students of the subject in ensuring that the community of Classics and ancient history can grow together towards a more inclusive future for the field. As such, we hope to include interviews and feature individuals in their ongoing works concerning the teaching of race and ethnicity in antiquity regularly.

INTERVIEW 1, JULY 6, 2022, with PROF. REBECCA FUTO KENNEDY

Audio is available here, and the transcript will be available below shortly.

As we grow this project, we hope to source more features, especially from junior faculty, non-university affiliated scholars, and BIPOC individuals. Please find more information and submit your contact details at the form listed here! 

This site curates a selection of books, articles, and resources that Barnard and Columbia students of the Ancient Mediterranean have found helpful in answering the question: How can we better understand the complexities of racialization and ethnic identity in the past? It was initiated by Aditi Rao (BC '21) and is now carried forward by Thandiwe Knox (BC '25).

Race is inherently unstable. It is a composite identity, not imparted on someone by innate biology, but encoded through a series of political, cultural, social, geographical, and moral metamorphoses. Yet this instability has long justified the exclusion of race’s critical examination, discussion, and pedagogy in the study of the texts, arts, and artifacts of antiquity. The absence of scholarship on race has delimited the potential of Classics and fettered its intellectual relevance and position in the modern academy.

If race is not just one thing, then the methods used to approach it cannot be so either. The following bibliography aims to fill this gap in the discussion of race in antiquity, creating an accessible and coherent list of sources from various disciplines that seek to explicate some facet of race, racialization, racism, and ethnic identity in the ancient world. The bibliography opens with the question, “How can we conceptualize race in the ancient world?”, with each subheading providing possible answers in the form of theories, methodologies, genres, and innovations that are not necessarily Classical but speak to cultural dynamics in antiquity. The sources included were chosen for the example they provide of how one may conduct a research project regarding material as political and obscured as race, without sacrificing rigorous and tangible investigation. These sources also introduce frameworks that are innovative and compelling, and even when they do not directly address the ancient world, still provide powerful suggestions and tools for doing so. (ALR, 2020)